On Biomes

On Biomes:

There are no two areas, or even two things, on Earth that are exactly alike. The stripes on every zebra’s back, the pattern of a tongue (i.e. tongue print), thumbprints and many other examples can be given of things on earth that are distinctly unique in each respective individual. Even identical twins are not, in the truest sense of the word “identical”. The Earth is filled with uniqueness and fueled by diversity; and within these, its beauty lies. Despite this fact, there are things that are similar. Not truly identical, but similar. A good example of things that are similar would be that of biomes. Biomes are areas on the earth that have similar climatic conditions, and similar flora, fauna and other life forms. The word “biome” is a concept developed by North American environmental scientists (its European equivalent is “Major Life Zones”).

 

Wikipedia defines biomes as “climatically and geographically defined areas of similar climatic conditions such as communities of plants, animals, and soil organisms.”

There are a number of biomes in the world, and each consists of a number of ecosystems.

A biome’s plant life, climate, and location are what characterize it. Moreover, the factors that distinguish a biome from another are: plant structure (e.g. trees, shrubs, grasses); leaf types (e.g. broad leaf or needle leaf); plant spacing (e.g. woodland, savanna, forest); and climate. The Earth’s biomes are: tundra, boreal forests, grasslands, chaparral, tropical rain forests, savannas, deserts, deciduous forests, taiga, and hydro-related biomes. In the paper that follows, I have analyzed the above-mentioned biomes in consideration to their temperature, rainfall, vegetation, altitude, productivity, and other factors that distinguish a biome from another.

 

The tundra biome: Tundra, as a word, originates from the Finnish word tunturi, which means “treeless plain.” Characteristically, tundra has extremely low temperatures and is actually the coldest of all the biomes. Other characteristics that define this biome are: its “frost-molded” landscapes (i.e. the landforms are patterned by ice), its short growing seasons, its low-soil nutrient content, and its very low levels of annual precipitation. Tundra is divided into two: arctic tundra, and alpine tundra. The arctic tundra encircles the North Pole, and is famed for its cold desert-like conditions (sometimes referred to as cold-deserts). Arctic tundra has an average winter temperature of -34º C, although in summer it ranges from 3 º to 12 º C. This summer temperature range is what allows this biome to sustain life. Many people think that the weather in the whole of the Arctic is unlivable, in that it is extremely cold that no form of life can exist, but the arctic boasts a huge range of life forms. Actually, the Arctic ecosystem is alive and kicking, packed with forms of life at virtually all trophic levels. In terms of both flora and fauna, the Arctic is blessed with a huge variety e.g.: low shrubs, sedges, reindeer mosses, liverworts and grasses. Also, there are four hundred varieties of flowers and two varieties of lichen (crustose and foliose). There are about 1,700 kinds of plants in the arctic and sub-arctic combined. All these plants are adapted, in complex and simple ways, to the extreme climatic conditions of the Arctic tundra. In terms of fauna, there are lemmings, caribou, arctic hares, arctic foxes, wolves, mosquitoes, blackflies, migratory birds (e.g. terns, falcons) and the very famous polar bears. There is also a huge assortment of fish species: cod, salmon, trout and flatfish. Commenting on the survival-techniques of these animals, www.cotf.edu, an educational website records:

“[These] animals are adapted to handle long, cold winters and to breed and raise young quickly in the summer. Animals such as mammals and birds also have additional insulation from fat. Many animals hibernate during the winter because food is not abundant. Another alternative is to migrate south in the winter, like birds do. Reptiles and amphibians are few or absent because of the extremely cold temperatures. Because of constant immigration and emigration, the population continually oscillates.”

The other type of tundra – the Alpine tundra – is found on mountains throughout the world. This biome is found on very high altitudes where trees cannot grow, and where the nighttime temperatures are usually below 0ºC. Mount Kilimanjaro, the highest mountain in Africa, highest freestanding Mountain in the world and most beautiful mountain in the world, has a good example of alpine tundra. The mountain is beautifully arrayed with flowering alpine tundra (around Gilman’s point) and has the typical characteristics of this biome. Unlike the arctic tundra, the soil in the alpine is well drained, though the plants are interestingly similar to those of the arctic tundra.

 

The desert biome: The main characteristic of deserts is that they are dry. Although the rate of annual precipitation differs depending on geographical location, the average range of annual precipitation is from half an inch to as much as fifteen inches. Rain is virtually the only form of precipitation, and is usually confined to very small areas. As can be judged, rainfall is infrequent and difficult to predict. It is very hard to tell when and/or where it is going to rain in a desert. The Sahara desert is currently the world’s largest desert, and the fastest spreading one too, but it is not necessarily the driest. The educational website www.cotf.edu records that “At times in the Atacama desert in Chile, years have passed with no measurable rainfall at all. However, that is not generally the case.” Deserts can be classified into hot deserts, and cold deserts. Most deserts are hot deserts (e.g. the Australian desert, The Sahara, Namib, Kalahari, Atacama), and some, like the Gobi, are cold deserts. Due to their dryness, deserts have huge daily temperature variations (very hot days, and very cold nights). They have extremely high temperatures during the day because there is very little moisture in the air to block the Sun’s rays from reaching the desert surface. At night, after the sun has gone down, the heat absorbed during the day quickly escapes back into space, leaving the place in extreme coldness. These extreme variations make survival in the desert very difficult. Moreover, this implies very low productivity except in oases, which act as natural reservoirs of the few desert rains, and therefore have higher productivity than the other parts. Desert plants include cacti, and other xerophytes; also include dates, palm trees, grasses, and flowers in oases.

 

The taiga biome/boreal forests: Taiga is a biome characterized by coniferous forests. The taiga is found throughout the high northern latitudes, between the tundra, and the steppes. Actually, the taiga is the world's largest terrestrial biome. It covers most of inland Alaska, Canada, Sweden, Finland, inland Norway and Russia (especially Siberia), as well as other parts of the United States (Northern Minnesota, Michigan, Upstate New York, New Hampshire, and Maine). In Asia: northern Kazakhstan and Japan. Boreal forest is the term used to refer to the southern part of this biome, while "taiga" is used to describe the more barren northern areas of the Arctic tree line. The taiga, due to its extensiveness, has high variations of annual temperature. Generally, temperatures vary from −50 °C to 30 °C (-58°F to 86°F) throughout the whole year, with eight or more months of temperatures averaging below 10 °C (50°F). Seasons are divided into short, moist, and moderately warm summers and long, cold, and dry winters. The length of the growing season in boreal forests is 130 days. Due to the very low temperatures that are characteristic of this biome, precipitation is primarily in the form of snow, 40-100 cm annually. The plants that can be found in taigas are mostly cold-tolerant evergreen conifers with needle-like leaves, such as pine, fir, and spruce. The adaptation of evergreen needles limits the water lost due to transpiration and their dark green color increases their absorption of sunlight. It is important to note that the ground freezes during the winter months and plant roots are unable to absorb water, so desiccation (i.e. loss of moisture) can be a severe problem in late winter for evergreens. Fauna include woodpeckers, hawks, moose, bear, weasel, lynx, fox, wolf, deer, hares, chipmunks, shrews, and bats. Quoting Wikipedia, the free online encyclopedia, “Some of the larger mammals, such as bears, eat during the summer in order to gain weight and then go into hibernation during the winter. Other animals have adapted layers of fur or feathers to insulate them from the cold.” Soils in the taiga are thin, acidic and very poor in nutrients; this means that the productivity of the taiga is relatively very low.

 

Grasslands (Savanna; Steppes; Temperate Grasslands): As the name suggests, grasslands are characterized as lands dominated by grasses rather than large shrubs or trees. They are categorized mainly into: temperate grasslands, and tropical grasslands (savanna). Savanna is grassland with scattered individual trees. When one thinks of the African wild, the picture that comes to mind is that of endless plains of dried grass, scattered acacias, baobabs and other trees, and beautiful Serengeti-like animals – an authentic picture of the Savanna. Almost half of the surface of Africa is covered in savanna (about five million square miles, virtually all of East and Central Africa). Other parts of the world with savanna are Australia, India and South America. Savannas are always found in warm or hot climates with annual rainfalls of around 50.8 to 127 cm. Most savannas would be tropical rain forests if the rain was evenly distributed throughout the year; but in savannas, rainfall is concentrated in six or eight moths of the year, followed by an extensive period of drought which limits the plant growth. Savanna is not offered with a variety of seasons: it only has rainy (wet) and dry seasons. Generally, savannas receive an average annual rainfall of 76.2-101.6 cm (30-40 inches). However, certain savannas can receive as little as 15.24 cm (6 inches) or as much as 25.4 cm (10 inches) of rain a year. In light of productivity: savanna soils are porous hence a rapid drainage of water and nutrients. The soil has only a thin layer of humus, and this thin layer is what provides the vegetation with nutrients. The predominant vegetation is obviously grass, and what is called forbs (small broad-leaved plants that grow with grasses.) In drier savannas like the Serengeti plains or the Laikipia plateau in Kenya, for example, the dominant grasses are star grasses, Rhodes grass, lemon grass and red-oat grass. According to some researchers on their university website: www.ucmp.berkeley.edu “One type of savanna common in southwestern Kenya, Tanzania, and Uganda, known as grouped-tree grassland, has trees growing only on termite mounds — the intervening soil being too thin or poorly drained to support the growth of trees at all. Frequent fires and large grazing mammals kill seedlings, thus keeping the density of trees and shrubs low.” Antelopes, gazelles, dik-dik, giraffes, zebras, buffaloes, lions, cheetahs, hyenas, mice, moles, gophers, snakes, worms, termites, beetles, and many other “African” animals, elephants and kangaroos (in the Australian savannas) are examples of the richness of the savanna in terms of fauna. Environmental concerns pertaining to savannas are mainly poaching, overgrazing, and bush-clearing for agriculture and settlement. Daystar’s Athi River Campus is set in a typical savanna, therefore what is explained above is characteristically what we experience everyday. The main differences of savanna and temperate grasslands are summed up in the words that follow: In temperate grasslands “temperatures vary more from summer to winter, and the amount of rainfall is less in temperate grasslands than in savannas. The major manifestations are the veldts of South Africa, the puszta of Hungary, the pampas of Argentina and Uruguay, the steppes of the former Soviet Union, and the plains and prairies of central North America. Temperate grasslands have hot summers and cold winters. Rainfall is moderate. The amount of annual rainfall influences the height of grassland vegetation, with taller grasses in wetter regions. As in the savanna, seasonal drought and occasional fires are very important to biodiversity. However, their effects aren't as dramatic in temperate grasslands as they are in savannas. The soil of the temperate grasslands is deep and dark, with fertile upper layers. It is nutrient-rich from the growth and decay of deep, many-branched grass roots. The rotted roots hold the soil together and provide a food source for living plants.”

 

The forest biome: A forest is simply a large dense growth of trees. Therefore, forest biomes are biological communities that are dominated by trees and other woody vegetation (Spurr and Barnes, 1980). There are three major types of forests: tropical rainforests, temperate forests, and boreal forests (which have already been discussed under taiga). Forests occupy approximately one-third of Earth’s land area, they account for about 70% of the carbon present in living things. This shows the tremendous significance of this biome to life on earth. However, as Berkeley records, “…forests are becoming major casualties of civilization as human populations have increased over the past several thousand years, bringing deforestation, pollution, and industrial usage problems to this important biome.” Tropical forests have a greater diversity of species than all other biomes combined. Rainforests are characterized by high rainfall. This often results in poor soils due to leaching of soluble nutrients. The soils are, as stated, nutrient-poor and acidic; and decomposition is very quick. The average temperature range is around 20° - 25°C and varies little throughout the year. Flora is highly diverse: one square kilometer may contain as many as 100 different tree species. Trees are 25-35 m tall, with buttressed trunks and shallow roots, mostly evergreen, with large dark green leaves. Plants such as orchids, bromeliads, vines (lianas), ferns, mosses, and palms are present in tropical forests. Fauna include numerous birds, bats, small mammals, and insects. The rainforests are further classified according to the length of the dry season into: evergreen rainforests, seasonal rainforests, semi-evergreen rainforests, and moist/dry (monsoon) rainforests. Tropical forests are on the threshold of destruction, and are faced with numerous environmental problems. The fact that over half of these tropical forests have been destroyed only adds upon this truth. Temperate Forests are different from tropical forests especially in their location, and, therefore, the climate. While the tropical forests are found around the equator, temperate forests occur in eastern North America, northeastern Asia, and western and central Europe. Well-defined seasons with a distinct winter characterize this forest biome. Moderate climate and a growing season of 140-200 days during 4-6 frost-free months distinguish temperate forests from tropical forests. The temperature obviously depends on the season but generally ranges between -30°C and 30°C. Precipitation is evenly distributed throughout the year and ranges between 75-150 cm. The productivity of the soils in these forests is high because the soil is very fertile and constantly enriched with natural decaying litter. Most of the fauna in these forests is trees, obviously, and it is mostly hardwood trees like oak, hickory, beech, hemlock, maple, basswood, cottonwood, elm, willow, and spring-flowering herbs. Fauna is mainly “forest” animals like squirrels, rabbits, skunks, birds, deer, mountain lion, bobcat, timber wolf, fox, and black bear.

 

Chaparral: this is not exactly a biome, but a shrub land or heath land community that is primarily found in California (USA) and in the northern portion of Lower California, Mexico. The word chaparral is coined from the Spanish chaparro, meaning dwarf-like evergreen oak. A typical chaparral plant community consists of densely-growing evergreen scrub oaks and other drought-resistant shrubs. It often grows so densely that it is all but impenetrable to large animals and humans. This, and its generally arid condition, makes it notoriously prone to wildfires. It is commonly believed that chaparral plant species are adapted to fire, because of the many times that raging fires burn up huge parts of their communities, and the plants remaining intact. Although many chaparral plant species require some fire cue (heat, smoke, or charred wood) for germination, chaparral plants are not "adapted" to fire per se. It is shaped by a Mediterranean climate (mild, wet winters and hot dry summers) and wildfire, as stated above. Similar plant communities are found in the five other Mediterranean climate regions around the world. The University of California at Berkeley’s site www.ucmp.berkeley.edu records the following plant species as native to chaparral communities: Ceanothus, Chamise, Redshanks, Chaparral Pea, Scrub oak, California Coffeeberry, Islay or Hollyleaf Cherry, Silk-tassel bush, Laurel sumac, Manzanita, Mountain mahogany, Toyon, and Yucca.

 

After identifying the Earth’s major life zones, and seeing their characteristics together with the many, mostly negative, impacts that man has upon them we are at a better position to move forward to an improved future with positive action. There has always been, and will always be, a great need to preserve what is placed in our hands. To conserve what is around us, and that which is within us. For the most part humankind has been preoccupied with a bulk of wants that it has created for itself; and it has gone out, exploiting and depleting Earth’s resources along the way, in attempts to satisfy these artificial wants. For long we have been pushed around in an endless cycle of wants, wants, and more wants. An “invisible hand” of greed and self-interest has driven us round and round in this infinite cycle of endless wanting. Nevertheless, my belief is swathed in Mahatma Gandhi’s words, “the earth provides enough to satisfy every person’s need but not every person’s greed… Civilization, in the real sense of the term, consists not in the multiplication of our wants but in the deliberate and voluntary reduction of wants.” The question is: Will people ever stop wanting? Obviously, No! Wants are almost innate impulses. But, can we not “deliberately” reduce our wants? Yes, we can! Yes, we should! But how?

 

By learning about, and from, our environment we can be better stewards. By increasing awareness of the problems we cause ourselves by destroying our environment, we shall be provoked to think on how to curb further damage to the environment. We hold the keys to a brighter and greener tomorrow. Now, let us not merely hold them. Let us take these keys, put them into the doors of opportunity by thinking originally on how to solve the problems we caused; and let us turn the keys by acting according to the numerous positive ideas generated on environmental conservation at all levels. Let us move into this bright future that lies ahead, by engaging in a quest for positive alternative lifestyles. Again, by thinking originally, like children – whose creativity and sense of wonder are still intact – as we search for alternative sources of energy, or better still, alternative ways of using those that we already have. I call upon continual and cooperative movement towards treading as lightly as possible on our beautiful planet; in the words of G. Tyler Miller, “learning to live simply so that others, human or nonhuman, may simply live.” Many people have been discouraged by the expenses of conserving the environment, and so have backed down from their attempts. Conversely, the problems we face should not pull us out of this noble cause but rather push us further into it. While considering the costs of our struggle we should keep our eyes on the rewards our efforts carry. The words of Gaylord Nelson offer a witty conclusion, “When it is asked how much it will cost to protect the environment, one more question should be asked: How much will it cost our civilization if we do not?” 

Israelite Demand for A King | The Book of Samuel

BSU ((BlogSpot University)) Profile
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Title: The Israelite Demand for A King: a Biblical Excursion
Author: HG Furaha///BlogSpot University online-editor-in-chief
Timescape: 2008
Type: Class Assignment
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feel free to use the information by HG Furaha in the way that best suits your scholastic needs. Citing any part of this page is free. Basically, put the words you are citing in quotes ("...") then, in brackets, indicate that you are quoting H.G. Furaha (n.d.)

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There came a time in the life of Israel as a nation that its people demanded a human king. Israel had been living as a loose confederacy of tribes for very long and was, in the words of Manya (2008), “going round in a cycle of: sin>>punishment>>repentance>>blessing>>complacency, then back to sin again.” The period of the judges spans one hundred and fifty years, which are enclosed within another 400 years characterized by general apostasy. The people repeatedly turned from the LORD to other gods, and displayed the lack of a sound knowledge of God. Conversely – as depicted by the cycle – God in His love and grace always sent His people a deliverer in the form of a judge.
This time, when Israel transitioned from the leadership of the judges to a monarchic form of government, was a time of great change for Israel. Israel’s delicate internal balances of culture, government, ethos, and almost all other aspects of its societal existence were profoundly touched by this transition into a monarchy. The discussion that follows is based on chapter 8 of the book of Samuel, and is concerned with Israel’s quest for a king, and the implications thereof:
Samuel, the last judge of Israel, was both a religious and political leader. He was Israel’s prophet, priest and judge. As a prophet, he served as one who received divine utterance and communicated God’s will to the people – he is also referred to as a “seer” on numerous occasions throughout this book (1 Samuel). As priest, he wore the ephod of priesthood and conducted all religious practices and the Levitical rituals demanded of a priest by the Mosaic Law. As judge, he was Israel’s chief (and often final) decision maker: he solved cases, settled disputes as an arbitrator and offered advice to any who consulted him. Moreover, he was a deliverer – used by God to redeem Israel from the oppression of the surrounding nations (e.g. 1 Sam 7 speaks about his dealing with the Philistines). The Bible depicts him as a righteous individual, a man in a two-way relationship with God, and as Israel's deliverer from the clutches of sin and the apostasy that bound them tightly during the period of the judges. In what Hill and Walton (1991) call “The Shiloh Traditions (1 Sam 1:1 to 4:1a)” Samuel’s background is explained: his miraculous birth, arrival at the temple, radical calling and, finally, the start of his functioning as prophet, priest and judge of Israel after the demise of Eli and his family. (As briefly noted above, The Shiloh Traditions refer to 1 Samuel 1:1 to 4:1a were Samuel’s background is elaborately explained. They are thought to be obtained from oral narratives traditionally accepted by the Jewish people to be the story of Samuel’s birth and his life before taking position as Israel’s leader. The name Shiloh comes from the city in which the temple and the Ark of the Covenant resided.)
Israel at this time was in a tumultuous condition in which each tribe lived on its own accord with little or no regards of the other tribes. It was a loose confederacy of ethnic outfit. Samuel became a thread that wove through all of Israel in spite of the ethnic precincts and boundaries. Despite the fact that Israel was internally divided it can easily be seen that God, Samuel, and even outsiders considered it one nation. This can be judged from the following observations: when the Midianites (during Gideon’s times) or the Philistines (during Samson’s time) attacked the Israelites, they attacked them holistically – as one nation! Moreover, when God spoke, particularly through Samuel, he spoke to the whole of Israel – as one nation! The period of the judges ends dramatically. It closes with the Ark of the Covenant being captured by the Philistines. This capturing made Israel, and its God, objects of contempt and mockery. Researches on biblical anthropology and history explain that the nations of Ancient West Asia states regarded military victory as one nation’s deity conquering over another’s. This meant that the capturing of The Ark made Israel items of “scorn and ridicule”1 – the Philistines regarded it as capturing Israel’s God. The Israelites became items of divine abandonment, and were left in the webs of a “self-imposed exile of the Lord.”1 It is at these troubling times that Samuel emerges as a radical transitional figure and presides over Israel’s move into a monarchic form of statehood.

The Israelite’s demand a king: The events surrounding Israel’s demand for an earthly king are elaborately discussed in the section that follows:

As seen in the paragraphs above, Israel was in a chaotic state but God used Samuel to restore its dignity and stability. The Bible also states that as Samuel neared the end of his time as Israel’s leader there was a “great peace” in the nation, that even their fiercest enemies – the Philistines – “did not disturb them” (1 Sam 8). Now, Samuel grew old and returned to Armathaim (some versions: Ramah), his hometown, then, as the Bible records, “he placed his sons as judges over Israel” (1 Sam 8:13). Nonetheless, the Bible also mentions that Samuel judged Israel “all the days of his life” (1 Sam 8:15); this implies that although his sons were the “judges” of Israel they were merely ceremonial leaders, and quite unauthorized in that Israel still regarded Samuel as their real leader. This is also witnessed in the fact that the Israelites, when they asked for a king, did not consult his sons but went directly into the countryside of Armathaim to lie out their complaints before him. His sons were considered nominal leaders. The Israelites felt that there was no one appropriate to serve as prophet, priest and judge in Samuel’s place.

In verse 5 of 1 Samuel 8, the Bible states three reasons that the Israelites had for demanding a king, derived from what they themselves said in their petitions for a king. The next paragraphs deal with the reasons explicitly stated by the Bible for Israel’s demand of a king:

Samuel had grown old: the Israelite’s mention this to him in their demand for a king (verse 5). The great leader of Israel had started to wear out physically due to his advancing age. Actually, he had even returned to his hometown. This act of Samuel withdrawing to his hometown despite his dynamic roles (of prophet, priest and judge) carries the symbolic meaning that he had become very old and frail. It was customary for people in OT times to return to their hometowns when they thought that they were nearing death so that they would be “buried with their fathers.” It is also good to note that, in those times, old age was associated with wisdom, experience and, hence, good leadership. Therefore, Samuel’s retirement of the judgeship shows us that he was not simply elderly, but very aged – too old to retain his dynamic positions. This meant that he could not be as mobile as before, capable of serving the whole of Israel. Additionally, the Israelite’s discerned that no one was proficient enough to take over Samuel’s position as Israel’s sole administrator. However, or so they thought, a king with people working under him (as subordinates) would be a fuller national administrator after Samuel.
His sons were corrupt and vile leaders: the Israelites also complained to Samuel that his sons “did not follow his example.” They complained that his sons were despicable leaders – devoid of holiness and wisdom. Samuel had set them as judges over Israel, but, as verse 3 records, they were “seduced by the love of money, took bribes, and gave biased verdicts.” The people had expected that, as Samuel’s seed, they would be people of integrity, wisdom, and godliness. They probably even expected that they would raise the bar of stability and dignity that Israel found with Samuel. Israel’s elders were hurt by their evil actions, and at once ran to Samuel – whom they still regarded the “real judge” – and poured out their complaints to him. Joel and Abijah’s actions shattered all hope among the Israelites for a judge after Samuel. (Joel and Abijah are Samuel’s sons).
They desired a king “like the other nations”: the fact that all the surrounding Syro-Palestinian nations had kings who led and judged them, made the Israelite’s desirous of a king; thinking that it would further their stability and prosperity. They were attracted to the monarchic form of government – maybe just because they wanted to try something new, or because they wanted a human being, tangible and seeable, leading them – but mainly, we fathom, because of Samuel’s increasing age and the uncertainty therein that no one could take his position. They were driven by the uncertainty-avoidance characteristic of most Near Eastern cultures towards desiring something that would provide them added assurance that their internal balances would continue being in control. (It should be noted that we are not justifying Israel’s position but rather analyzing, through inferences, the most probable causes of its desire for the shift into a monarchic government.) Probably, they also were seeking a man who they, as a nation, could draw identity from. This shows the weakness of their spiritual state, because, originally they were to find their identity in God, and not elsewhere.

Apart from the three reasons that the Bible explicitly states there is a horde of other implied reasons as can be judged through a historical analysis of the times in which these events occurred. This section deals with the implicit reasons for Israel’s transition to a monarchy:

Syro-Palestinian political rivalry: the political unrest caused particularly by Israel’s enmity with the Philistines and to a small extent the other Syro-Palestinian nations (i.e. the Ancient Western Asiatic states) called for the merging of Israel’s tribes so as to form a greater alliance than the one they, at that time, had. These rivalries placed Israel in a position where they had to join and form a unified front in case of any external attacks or political interferences. The best option Israel had was to solidify their intertribal relationships by uniting under the leadership of a monarch. Hill and Walton (1991) assert, “Threats to Israel posed especially by the Philistines necessitated a greater amount of cooperation among the tribes than was the case previously, and these are directly responsible for the decision to switch to a monarchic form of government.” The picture of one Israel under one king became to them a hope and a symbol of larger national power. To them, it meant greater stability and security – it increased their chances of political constancy and national security. Due to the reasons elaborated above, they opted for a monarchic form of government rather than continuing as a slack coalition of ethnic outfit, which is relatively prone to defeat by their political rivals.
Difficulty in acquiring one to replace Samuel: the Israelites deemed it almost impossible to find a man to function as Israel's political and religious leader after Samuel’s regime. It was difficult to find one to serve as a judge with the same genuineness and administrative prowess of Samuel. Samuel’s wisdom, integrity, age, and leadership skills – together with his firm relationship with God – made him a strong figure in Israel’s political, social, and religious leadership. He assumed multiple vibrant roles as the prophet, priest, and judge of Israel. His leadership was divinely inspired for he was led by God’s Holy Spirit. These qualities won him reverence and great influence over Israel and even over other nations (as evidenced by chapter 7:13-15a). Now, the Israelites knew that there were only few, if any, people capable of serving in the capacity and qualities of Samuel. Thus, they opted for a relatively secular leadership – where governmental/administrative functions are separated from priestly/prophetic functions – and so they demanded a monarch.

This section will identify and elaborate the implications of this action of the Israelites demanding a human king:

A willful rejection of the Lord’s rule over them: When the Israelite’s went to Samuel and complained to him that they were tired of the situation they were in, and that they demanded a human king to sit on the throne and “judge” them it implied that they had deliberately rejected the leadership of the Lord. This is vividly seen in the startling statement God makes to Samuel in chapter 8:7 “It is not you they have rejected, but they have rejected me as their king.” Up to this point in history, the Israelites had always accepted God’s divine rule over them through a man in the form of a prophet, a priest, and/or a judge who received messages from God and reproduced them to the people – one who represented the nation before God. God made his will known through men like Moses, Joshua, the judges and Samuel himself, and the Israelites followed whatever their leader presented to them. God was king, and the earthly leaders were merely representatives who carried out his will. Now the Israelites were rejecting this system of divine leadership. The theocratic system of ruling was abandoned for a human regime of leadership, and though this human king was also to serve as a representative of the Divine King – Saul failed to do so.
A heavy influence of the surrounding nations on Israelite thinking and social order: One of the reasons the Israelites themselves gave for demanding an earthly king was that they should have a human king “like the other nations.” All of the other Western-Asiatic nations had kings who ruled over them – the Philistines, the Moabites, the Edomites, and all other surrounding nations that were Israel’s regional rivals had kings as their presiding administrators. This demand for a king “like the other nations” sheds light on the influence these nations had on Israel’s social order. From it, we can judge Israel’s social behavior. It implies that Israel would easily borrow many practices from the neighboring nations – these practices range from farming techniques, to morals, worldviews and even to religious systems (proven by the fact that Israel easily fell into idolatry and apostasy many times during the period of the judges). Israel followed the manners of the other nations. They separated themselves from God’s separation. God intended Israel to be a model nation and separated them by telling them “you are a chosen people, a royal priesthood, a holy nation a people set apart for God.” Nonetheless, Israel fell short of this blessedness and separation of the Lord. They were influenced behaviorally, culturally, and socially by their neighbor nations. It was a time of tremendous externally inspired cultural shifts. Israel had been in exile for many years, they had adopted many ways foreign to them. As a nation, and a culture, Israel was generally insecure; and despite Samuel’s achievements in restoring stability and security, they still were prone to various foreign influences.
A general deterioration of their relationship with God: it implied that Israel’s spiritual relationship with God had weakened and degenerated. Israel’s demand of a king was, among many other reasons, a quest to find a man they could draw identity from. From this, we observe that their relationship with God had weakened because, according to God’s purpose, they drew identity from him. Originally, it was a relationship whereby man was in the image of God. One where: we are what we are because God is what he is. This can be seen in Genesis 1 (where he says, “let us make man in our own image”) and in Leviticus where he says, “Ye shall be holy, because I am holy.” This shows God’s original plan of relationship with human beings. “Ye shall be…because I am…” We are because He is – we draw our identity from him! The model nation Israel had deviated from this plan.

From verse 10 of chapter 8, Samuel proclaims to the Israelites the many things that the king they have demanded would do to them and to their children. He prophetically speaks into Israel’s future as a nation – he mentions the various oppressions that the Israelites would suffer, and that the monarch’s regime will be harsh and exploitative. Despite his warnings, the Israelites kept on with their demand for a king.
The unenviable condition that Saul left Israel in after his leadership is merely a confirmation of Samuel’s prophecy. When Saul became Israel’s first king, he was their hope. Israelites found in him an assurance of greater political stability, economic prosperity, and social welfare – only to find that his was a temporary hope. “Saul had the potential to succeed, but he did not develop into a man who knew God. His naïveté becomes clear as the text recounts his failures. ”1 By willfully rejecting God, the Israelites had thrown themselves into a pit of troubles while thinking they were solving their problems. They acted in a manner suggested by the Swahili adage “kuruka majivu, kukanyaga moto” – translated it reads “jumping ashes only to fall into fire.” In their attempts to escape its problems and establish security, the Israelites fell into bigger problems – the threat posed by the Philistines increased, the economic condition worsened, and the people were pulled farther and farther from God. This is along the lines of Dr. Martin Luther King’s words (1963) “…the solution of one problem brings us face to face with another problem.” In their endeavor to escape oppression from outsiders, they faced internal exploitation from Saul’s tyrannical regime and constant opposition from the neighboring nations.

The Music Of The Zanzibari

BSU Profile
>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>
Title: The Music of The Zanzibari: a Cultural Excursion
Author: HG Furaha///BlogSpot University online-editor-in-chief
Timescape: 2008
Type: Term Paper
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feel free to use the information by HG Furaha in the way that best suits your scholastic needs. Citing any part of this page is free. Basically, put the words you are citing in quotes ("...") then, in brackets, indicate that you are quoting H.G. Furaha (n.d.)
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The Paper Itself:
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Zanzibar, being one of earth’s most multi-ethnic destinations, is endowed with a rich culture in terms of music, religious practice, and lifestyle, which has developed and evolved with time to provide Africa, and the world at large, with a unique and varied selection of musical and cultural diversity. The East African coast is an ethnic melting pot. Zanzibar in particular boasts of a wide variety of ethnic groups and cultures that have existed side-to-side for centuries – the native Africans, the Shiraz, the Arabs, the Indians, and other Asians – all of these enhance the Zanzibari experience into a beautifully original fusion of lifestyles and culture. Its music also is both diverse and original. Zanzibari music is a fine example of truly African music that is simultaneously truly multi-ethnic. Therefore, the music of the Zanzibari deserves special attention and evaluation if we are to understand music not only from an African viewpoint but also from a comprehensive point of view.
Music is one of the greatest beautifiers of our universe. It makes our world a more colorful and lively place by carrying the emotions we express in a melodious package of creativity. The Online Britannica Concise Encyclopedia (2008) defines music as an “art concerned with combining vocal or instrumental sounds for beauty of form or emotional expression, usually according to cultural standards of rhythm, melody, and …harmony. (pg.1)” Simply stated – music is the expression of emotion, ideas, thoughts etc through the medium of sound. It can also be viewed as a release, or a means through which an experience is shared. It is an infinite cultural resource ingrained in culture since ancient times. Imagine a world without music and you will have imagined a dull world!
The long-lasting presence of Zanzibari music makes it one of the most authentic examples of African music. Dr. Karenga (2002) says, “…the continuing quest to free ourselves, live full and meaningful lives and become the best of what it means to be both African and human in the fullest sense of the words… involves an ongoing search for models of excellence and possibilities within our culture by which we speak our own special cultural truth to the world and make our own unique contribution to the forward flow of human history.” If we are to make an inimitable and true contribution to humanity, we should look within ourselves for that which we do with excellence so that we may embrace and enhance it. Now, if original African music is to make a mark on the global arena we should seek first to understand our music. Moreover, to identify and appreciate “models of excellence” like Zanzibar’s taarab, the Congolese Lingala music, and the many other forms of strikingly original African music, which we can improve and therefore move towards our rightful place as Africans in the world. Upholding African culture will begin by appreciating it. In addition, music, being culture’s inexhaustible resource, is to be given particular consideration and appreciation. Dr. Karenga (2002) also mentions that we are “to speak our own special cultural truth to the world,” and what better way is there for us to articulate our truth than expressing it through music.
Henceforth, this paper will elaborately examine the music of the Zanzibari by highlighting its history, forms, roles, place in culture, and practice; then going on to generate ideas on the promulgation of African culture after assessing music in contemporary Africa. We will also evaluate Zanzibari music by offering a biblical perspective on it. This paper’s ultimate aim is to synthesize new and original ideas on how Africa, especially through music, can preserve its culture, its ethos, and identity amidst contemporary changes and challenges:

A brief history of Zanzibari music: the coast of East Africa has been for long a center of trade between Africa and the East. It has facilitated intercontinental trade almost since primeval times – historical records mention trade between Africa and the Orient as far back as 200 BC. As www.zanzibar.net (2007) – a web-based tourist guide – puts it “coastal East Africa is a cultural melting pot.” This interaction of cultures is greatly evidenced in Zanzibar’s music – particularly Taarab. Taarab reflects the many cultures that have passed through this region throughout the ages. Listening to taarab, you hear in it a tinge of Oriental tunes, Near-Eastern dances, Egyptian melodies, Swahili compositions, Coastal rhythms, and many other elements of music that are incorporated from a diverse range of cultures. The influences of these cultures are vividly seen in the kinds of instruments used by the taarab ensembles. Going to a taarab orchestra, you find the tabla – an instrument of Indian origin; the oud and dumbek – both of Middle-Eastern origin; the taishokoto – a banjo-like instrument of Japanese origin; Zanzibari zumari and ngoma; and even western-style keyboards and guitars among others. Zanzibar.net (2007) goes on to say, “…most importantly, taarab lyrics radiate with the allusive intricacies of Swahili poetry and showcase the beauty of this long, literary tradition.” Thereafter, it briefly explains the history of Taarab in the following words:
The word taarab is of Arabic derivation and contains multi-layered meaning. Gilbert Rouget in Music and Trance explains [that] taarab comes from "the verb tariba which means "'to be moved, agitated'...also signifies 'to excite, to want to move,' and hence 'to sing, to make music." Historically, the Sultan Seyyid Barghash who brought a group of Egyptian musicians to his court first introduced taarab to Zanzibar in 1870. Barghash sent a Zanzibari musician, Ibrahim Muhammed, to study in Cairo and upon his return; he formed the Zanzibar Taarab Orchestra. In 1905, Zanzibar's second music society, Ikwhani Safaa Musical Club, was established and continues to thrive today with around 35 active members. Ikwhani Safaa and Culture Musical Club (founded in 1958) remain the leading Zanzibar taarab orchestras. (pg.1)
This is the conventionally, and traditionally, accepted history of Taarab music although there are many other perspectives on the same. The many cultures involved in the genesis and the continuance of taarab have all contributed into its becoming an original entity of Zanzibari heritage. It has continually evolved in form, style, composition, rhythm and other elements to become a model of excellence of African music that continues to thrive in our contemporary times!
Forms of Zanzibari Music: Although Zanzibar is renowned for taarab, it boasts also of a great assortment of other kinds of music that are also evidently Zanzibari. Ngoma (which literally means “drums”) is the umbrella unit that comprises many other forms of music. Ngoma is such an integral part of Zanzibari culture in that it is even considered, by the locals, a necessity in life and not a mere luxury. Walking down the streets of the Spice Isle, as its visitors affectionately call it, it is typical for one to find a group of boys passionately hitting the traditional bongo drums carried between their arms with girls behind them chanting the words, and dancing to the beat of a popular mdundiko song. Mdundiko is the music of the streets. It is an ensemble in motion – a street parade of beautiful Zanzibari voices and melodious drumming. It is the music of the ordinary man, who does not have time or money to go and watch a professional taarab band in action at, say, the Old Fort or Forodhani Gardens. Zanzibari men, women and children alike are enthused by it – and they spontaneously take part in the Ngoma whenever the music begins. Other forms of Ngoma are Beni – which is a popular wedding entertainment that borrows its name from the English word “band;” Kiilua, Kidumbak and Unyago are other popular types of Ngoma. Unyago is a unique kind of Ngoma with a special cultural implication. It is used during initiation into womanhood; it is particularly used to emphasize the new roles the girl assumes as she has now attained maturity – her position in society, her general conduct, her purity, and even tips on intimacy, reaching orgasm, and other things pertaining to marriage and sexuality. (A more detailed account on Unyago will be given in later paragraphs, particularly due to its priceless role in enculturation and in shaping societal conduct). There are literally hundreds of types of Ngoma in Tanzania, and many originating from Zanzibar; these mentioned are just a few examples that merely hint on the nation’s musical richness.
“Living” the music: Commenting on the indivisibility of music from African everyday life, Titon (1976) wrote, “Traditional songs and musical instruments are not commodities separable from the flux of life.” Culturally, Africans do not only perform their music, they regard it as part of their life. Now, the only thing that does not change is change itself and Africa, being dynamic, has undergone immense changes – music is not as “inseparable” from life as it was traditionally. Although things are different in contemporary Africa, music in Zanzibar still is not “separable from the flux of life.” The people of Zanzibar still live their music on a day-to-day basis. From the streets, to the homesteads, to the schools – Zanzibari people are still very in harmony with their music. Their musical heritage – Taarab, Kidumbak, Beni, and the other types of Ngoma – is still alive and kicking in their hearts, and in practice. Music is like the glue that holds Zanzibari culture together. It is used in education, in enculturation, as recreation, in initiation and almost any setting imaginable – to them, music is life. If there is any contemporary African culture that can still be described in Titon’s words it is Zanzibar. One scholar comments, “Unlike the West, where most music is pretty much considered ‘art for art’s sake’; the tribal music of the African people serves a social function … [since childhood it is a process of education] that teaches the people how to respond to it so naturally.” 1 The above description of a typical mdundiko experience on the streets of Zanzibar only augments this proposition. Finally, a look at another scholar’s remark on music in Africa sheds more light on this truth (from 123helpme.com, 2008):
Because music is so integral to [African] society, everyone is expected to be able to sing and dance at a certain level of proficiency. Beyond that, certain people are selected for special musical training. These exceptional performers tend to reply on the help of spirits for guidance, which demand high performance from the individual. Musical instruments… are not just objects; they are semi-human as they take on human characteristics. These instruments, usually played by master musicians, can have personal names, be kept in special houses and may be “fed” sacrificial food. Because music is an integral part of life, it is found everywhere, even the market. (pg.1)

The section that follows focuses on the roles of music referring to Zanzibar for examples and illustrations on the various functions music has in human life. It explores what, and how, the music of the Zanzibari serves them as a people and as individuals:

Music, in itself, is not valuable. What we make of it is what gives value to it. It is of great importance to understand that music, as a part of culture, serves so much more than mere provision of auditory pleasure. Raymond Firth, an anthropologist, explains this about songs, “They have work to do, to serve as funeral dirges, as accompaniments to dancing, or to serenade a lover.” (p. 171) Along with the few characteristics mentioned by Firth above, music has a comprehensive range of ways that it serves humanity:
Music in enculturation, in customs and in cultural practices: Enculturation is, generally, the adoption of the behavior patterns of a culture. Human beings are born without culture, but gradually accept and conform to the norms, customs, behavior patterns, traditions and practices of a certain culture. In most cultures, it is the parents’ task to enculture their children. In Zanzibar, as in most other African cultures, enculturation – particularly of children – is a societal responsibility. Now this is done through a number of ways – music being one fundamental means that this is achieved. Music is comprehensively used in making people adapt and conform to Zanzibari culture. In the paragraph dealing with the forms of Zanzibari music, we revealed that Unyago is a special form of Ngoma as it is used in female initiation rituals. When a girl attains maturity, it is said, “amevunja ungo.” Subtly, the girl’s parents start teaching her on life as an adult – through words and actions. As she approaches marriage age, she has to be taken, together with her age mates, for trainings and teachings on the life of adulthood, on sexuality and the value of purity, and on general life skills. These training rituals are mainly performed as ceremonies in which music, of course, is not absent. The girls are said to have “kwenda Unyagoni.” The music played in these ceremonies is known as Unyago. Zanzibar.net (2007) explains the process, and the role, of Unyago:
“[Unyago] is performed at a highly secluded private female initiation ritual for young women about to be married. This ceremony can last anywhere from one day to three months and it involves all aspects of education on 'how to be a woman': detailed sexual education as well as other aspects such as clothing, hygiene, make-up, cooking, how to treat your husband's parents, your neighbors etc… The most famous of the female initiators is Bi Kidude who usually performs the Unyago ceremony together with two other drummers and several dancers. The drums played in Unyago are vumi (bass drum), msondo and kinganga (taller upright drums with a higher pitch) and songs that are related to the subject accompany the drumming. Even though these rituals are performed much less frequently than in former times, they still continue to be held throughout Unguja and Pemba [Zanzibar] (as well as the mainland where similar ceremonies exist under different names). (pg.2)
In this way, music is used to make them adopt, and conform to, the image they are culturally expected to don as adults. Furthermore, Zanzibar being dominantly Muslim in religion, children are obliged to attend madrasa – these are classes held at the mosque where a sheikh leads the children in the study, memorization, and understanding of the Q'oran. However, Madrasa is more than merely an equivalent to the typical Sunday School; the children are not only taught from the Q'oran but also from traditional legends and stories. They are also taught valuable life skills and in them moral and cultural values are engrained into the children. Now, one of the most used teaching aids in madrasa sessions is music. The children are taught how to sing, how to dance, how to use musical instruments such as the zumari and the zeze in madrasa sessions. It is common to hear people saying, “jamaa ana sauti nzuri sana! Lazima kaenda madrasa” which implies that a person even learns how to use his voice, and how to sing excellently – with or without instruments – in madrasa. Music is an effective tool in administering lessons on cultural values. It is an invaluable instrument of enculturation. The effectiveness of using music as a tool of enculturation is easily seen in the Zanzibari people themselves – who are, generally, very warm and hospitable, devout Muslims and well cultured people. Other cultural functions that music plays is when it is used in funerals as dirges, in war songs and dances, in the market places, at birth, puberty, circumcision and other rites of passage.
Spiritual Roles of Music: apart from being an effective enculturation tool, music plays a humongous role in the spirituality of the Zanzibari people. Regardless of one’s religion, the Zanzibari use music to connect with the spiritual realm, and also as part of their religious practices. The Muslim majority, for instance, use music very extensively. Cries of “Allahu Akbar” can be heard at least five times a day throughout the city from the hundreds of mosques that cover the area. Music is also a big part of their worship when they congregate. A troop of tiny brown boys, in shirts and khaki shorts, and sunburned girls with white shawls on their heads, sprints through the stone town singing at the top of their voices as they run – every 5:00 pm – towards madrasa. They gather at the mosque courts and are met with more music: this time melodious tunes emanating from a master zeze player – singing of Zanzibar’s glorious past, and singing of Islam. This is a typical everyday scene in Zanzibar. Now, although every church has its own way of employing music in their praise and worship, Christians – in a typical worship service – vibrantly dance and sing to the tunes of a song of praise to Jesus Christ during their meetings. Voices of joyful ululation can be heard even from miles away as the worship service continues. It is rare not to hear the phrase “makofi na vigelegele” (which translates “clap your hands and shout with ululations”) mentioned at a church meeting. The Bible also speaks of God “dwelling in the praises of His people” and the early followers of Christ being told to “greet one another with psalms, hymns, and songs of joy that give thanks to God.” Together with a host of other verses that praise the act of praising God, these act as incentives for music being used in church and in individual worship. Mediums, Spiritists, Animists, Buddhists, Hindus, and the many other religions utilize music in their rituals. It is important to keep in mind the truth that music greatly influences one’s thoughts, worldviews, morals, values, and even his soul and spirit. Music carries emotions with it. One of the definitions we gave of music is that it is “the transfer of emotions through the medium of sound.” Music serves one’s emotions while conveying another’s. Take a traditional Zanzibari funeral service for example; the dull and austere lyrics and tunes employed enhance the mood of the ceremony. A drum carved from a hollow log is almost lifelessly beaten to form slow repeating notes; male mourners carry the dead body in silence while women follow closely behind them cutting the air in bleak harmony – crying relentlessly! All this evokes dreary feelings of pain, sadness and emptiness within one’s soul. The spirits of the listeners are grieved. Music plays a spiritual role.
Music and the preservation of history: the Zanzibari are a people who are very in touch with their heritage and history, and this mainly due to the immense role music plays in the safeguarding of history. It is commonplace to see a group of youngsters seated beneath the sun, or the stars, and an old man boasting of Zanzibar’s enzi –a zeze sitting comfortably on his lap for use every so often when, all of a sudden, the whole group jumps up and bursts out to song and dance. Many songs have been composed as “Siku ya Uhuru!” and “Muungano!” elaborately telling of Tanzania’s near past; still, others tell of the Zanzibar revolution, the period of slavery, and the many glories of the spice island. Thus is how music put to task in the preservation of history.
Other roles of music: Apart from the above-mentioned roles, there are other roles music plays – especially in individual life, as will be discussed. Music is used in social, cultural, and even political liberation. One would testify to this if he were alive during the Zanzibar revolution. Throngs of young Zanzibari activists could be seen in the streets, around the palace of the Sultan and the governor’s estate singing and chanting – throes of freedom were thrown into the air for everyone to hear. A nonviolent movement against imperial and/or sultan rule was passionately carried out in song and mantra to reveal the evils of colonialism and the rightful place of the African as a leader of his own, and (although more violent methods came into play later) the war was won by the music. In social liberation, taarab is used effectively to call attention to various societal problems and weaknesses – it is used as a tool of enlightenment and an instrument of reform. Although taarab is used increasingly for entertainment a few like Bi Kidude carry on this legacy of using music for intellectual and social emancipation. Music is used to educate, enhance and facilitate relationships. Be it a peer-peer, sultan-subject, parent-child, man-woman or lover-beloved relationship music is as an effective communication tool in all these. It is said that without music, the world would be naked, cold, and quiet; music can wrap you in a blanket of comfort when you are lonely, or inspire you when you are down. Music is a vehicle for expressing love, telling a story, or sharing emotions, and life itself. Another role of music: taarab musicians earn their living from it, as it is their source of income. Even in pre-colonial times, ngoma troupes used to travel to different villages, play their music and were paid for it – these days, bands like East Afrika Melody, Zanzibar Modern Taarab and the likes earn fame and income for their beautiful lyrical and musical prowess.
A Biblical Perspective: Music has always played a great role in the worship of the church and is, even today, very important to a Christian’s spiritual life. Since ancient times music has been considered as one way that man can get into the presence of God; this can be seen in the book of Psalms in the Bible, which records authors as ancient as Moses, and the sons of Asaph. In a recent sermon, Rev. Tom Otieno (2008) expounded on worship, “The English word “worship” originates from an old English word that means to ‘give worth; to honor’;” and although worship is not the music, but the act of our hearts giving God what he deserves, music usually sets it in motion. Combining this truth with the many instances of worship in the Bible, we see that God loves music – the bible records music even in Heaven (in Revelation, John writes, “and I saw hosts of angels, seraphim and cherubim casting down their golden crowns and singing ‘Hosanna! Hosanna!’” and we see that Lucifer was the angel that “led music” in the heavens before his fall. Music carries so much emotional and spiritual power in that the singer, or the one making music, almost literally pours out his heart into it – this is the power and beauty of music. Kierkegaard (1988) wrote, “Music has a way of entering places where even the sun’s rays cannot.” Music has a way of piercing into men’s heart and taking its message along with it in a very powerful way. The people of ancient Palestine were much like the Zanzibari in terms of music. In the evenings, the streets were dotted with school-age children running to a rabbi amidst dancing and singing as much as the boys and girls of Zanzibar run for madrasa every evening in the Stone Town. During the Sabbath, people would walk to the temple resonating with song while ululating and undulating to the tunes of the “Songs of Ascent” just as well as you see the musical procession of a typical Zanzibari Friday as they go to the mosque for sw’allah. Even some of the musical instruments used such as the Oud and Dumbek originate from the ancient Middle East and were used even in biblical Palestine (they are what Bible translators have called “lyres” and “drums.”) The biggest difference in the use of music between the biblical society and Zanzibar is that the Israelites worshipped Yahweh (like many Christians and Jews in Zanzibar do even today) but the Muslim majority sings to Allah. Another difference would be the genre of music, but in form, roles and function, music has the same position in both societies. A research on the place of music in biblical Israel would lead one to somewhat similar findings as the ones of Zanzibar apart from the obvious differences stated above.
Music in contemporary Zanzibar: as we well know, the only thing that does not change is change itself; this truth is reflected very well in Zanzibar’s musical tradition and practice. Music in Zanzibar and Africa as a whole has seen drastic modifications and alterations in recent years. Africa has embarked on a new musical journey. One in which the beauty of local music is fused with other genres, mainly from the West. One in which authentic African music is a hard find and has distanced itself from the mainstream – particularly far away from the youth! It is therefore not hard to see why the youth of Zanzibar have joined this new journey and embraced the global musical neo-culture of Hip Hop, R&B, Rock, Neosoul, and the various forms of Afrofusion. Although you will still find throngs of young men, women and children delightfully dancing to mdundiko on the streets of Zanzibar, and children running to madrasa in jovial song and dance, the rate of devout taarab practitioners is falling, and the ngomas are loosing followers. They are giving way to a lifestyle of individual recreation as opposed to the communal Zanzibari dances, songs, and ensembles. They are falling apart. It is increasingly becoming commonplace to see a young man bobbing his head to his iPod to the latest Chris Brown track (an American R&B artist), or “chilling” in her room to the sounds of K-Lynn’s new song (she is a Bongo Flava songstress) rather than going to East Afrika Melody’s taarab album launch. However, thanks to local and international efforts, the music of the Zanzibari still thrives through initiatives like ZIFF (Zanzibar International Film Festival), The Festivities of The Dhow Countries, Sauti za Busara (which is Swahili for “Sounds of Wisdom”), and other events organized for the purposes of promoting and preserving Zanzibar’s music while also showcasing and developing upcoming talent. Sauti za Busara is a four-year old annual festival (every February), an initiative of Zanzibari locals under the hem of Busara Promotions. From 2004, they have garnered people from all over Africa, the Middle East and a few from the West to converge in a free all-week music festival at the Old Fort near Forodhani Gardens. Mojo Magazine (2006) hailed Sauti za Busara as “the world’s most idyllically situated festival” and the Daily Nation joined in calling it “the friendliest festival on earth” as it “showcases the wealth and diversity of music from East Africa and beyond.” Through ways like this, Zanzibar holds on its delicate musical heritage.
This exploration of the music of the Zanzibari can only lead one to seeing Zanzibar as the “model of excellence” it truly is. As a continent, we should learn from it and keep our musical, societal and cultural heritage alive and intact. And in the inexorable darkness of our world today we can choose to shine our lights by being true to ourselves, by not duplicating everything we see on TV or we come in contact with, but by understanding our very essence and living true to it. Our world has become a playground of darkness. Everyday we see and hear of evils: suicide bombings in Beirut, starvations in Kamba land, outbreaks of war in DRC, the increase of worldwide corruption, and shootings in schools and campuses. We are told of poverty, of AIDS, of dearth, and death. But even in the midst of this darkness, we can become the stars that we truly are by recovering, discovering and allowing ourselves to be all we can be. Dr. Karenga (2002) said, “…the key challenge in Black life is the cultural challenge. And this challenge is essential to break beyond the boundaries of the culture of the established order, recover, discover and bring forth the best of our own culture, and effectively address the fundamental questions of our world and our times.” We can only attend to the “fundamental questions of our time” by regaining our heritage and our identity and living through it. Our music is one thing we can, we must, and we shall reclaim. We should look up to the Zanzibari and other models of excellence and learn from their weaknesses and strengths. Let us emulate these places, where the process of musical creation transforms past and modern practices to contribute to the lively culture; where people are intent on maintaining an identity while responding to the challenges of the present. Now, the next time you see the African sun set, or hear the voice of the Indian Ocean, or walk beneath a starry sky, please hear the beguiling tunes of Zanzibar calling you to discover and recover your Africanness.
God Bless Africa!

Meaning is Internal and Individual

BSU ((BlogSpot University)) Profile
>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>
Title: The Main Aspects of Style in Chinua Achebe's Things Fall Apart
Author: HG Furaha///BlogSpot University online-editor-in-chief
Timescape: 2008
Type: Class Assignment
>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>
feel free to use the information by HG Furaha in the way that best suits your scholastic needs. Citing any part of this page is free. Basically, put the words you are citing in quotes ("...") then, in brackets, indicate that you are quoting H.G. Furaha (n.d.)

INTRODUCTION:
Communication is the process of understanding and sharing meaning between two or more people. It is a process of passing ideas and feeling to other people. It is a way of expressing feelings and thoughts. It also is a way of making one’s ideas, feelings and thoughts known to others.
There are several types of communication:
Intrapersonal communication
Small group communication
Public communication
Mass communication
Dyadic communication

MEANING IS INTERNAL AND INDIVIDUAL:
Meaning is internal and individual: this statement shows that meaning is always personal and unique to every individual. Although similar meaning can be held by different people, but precise meaning is always personal. When a communicator passes a signal, he has, in himself, a meaning that he has intended to convey to his receivers, but each of the receiving individuals will understand him in one’s own unique way.
When an individual communicates, he uses signals. These signals could be words (written or oral), gestures, pictures, touch, or visual objects. These signals are received through the receiver’s five senses: hearing, sight, touch, taste, and smell. From these senses, meaning is developed. When the meaning developed is similar to the meaning intended by the communicator, we have achieved, at most, a measure of communication. (Note: the key word here is “similar” because the shared meaning cannot be the same). However, at many times there seems to be no communication because the audience may not truly understand the intended meaning.
The developed meaning is determined by two factors: First is the different ways in which we use the signals according to our culture (i.e. every culture has a set of symbols to which meaning is assigned. Though different cultures may employ the same symbol, the meaning could be different in the cultures.) Secondly is the interpretation of those signals, the same signal will be interpreted in different ways because we have different needs and environments. In addition, though we might think that we are talking of the same thing, we could actually be referring to different things.

Factors that influence the development of meaning:
a) SIGNALS
These are objects or ideas that are used for passing information to the audience. They are the medium through which communication is achieved. Some of these communication signals include words, body motions (gestures/movements), food, pictures, touch and anything else that conveys information. (They are sometimes referred to as symbols.)

b) REFERENT
This is the idea that is held in a communicator’s mind – it is the intended meaning. The same idea may as well have different meaning in another communicator’s mind. Example of a referent is the word “table.” (To one, table could mean the surface on which we sit to eat, while to another it denotes geographical phenomena e.g. Table Mountains).

c) EXPERIENCES
From the perspective of communication, experience may refer to past interpretations of a certain signal, either bad or good in respect to the receiver’s interpretation. This experience is used for interpreting signals in use, to estimate intended meaning.
d) NEEDS
Needs are those things essential to us as humans e.g. food. They are things we require, and consider indispensable for our existence. They also affect the interpretation of symbols. For example, a hungry person will have a different response to a description of “a feast” from a person who has digestive problems. The man and woman who are getting married in a month will listen more closely to advice on how to have a happy family than he will a non-adolescent boy who is not even interested in girls (yet).

e) ENVIRONMENT
This in communication refers to the surrounding in which communication takes place. It also shapes interpretation of signals e.g. an Eskimo living in Northern Canada and a woman of South India protecting her baby against a draft in her home will have different interpretations of the idea of cold. The context within which the signal is used has a large influence on the meaning that will be given to it. This is of course a basic principle of literary interpretation and understanding the Bible.

A characteristic common in all these factors is that they affect the communicator, or the receiver, internally. Even when outside stimuli exist (as in the case of needs and environment), the impact is felt within the person. And from these one contrives meaning – showing that meaning is internal. In addition, they are not societal or shared entities. They happen to individuals. Their impact is felt internally at a personal level – one develops meaning, influenced by these factors, personally – showing that meaning is individual.
THE MENTAL MODEL
This is like an interpreter, taking signals and translating them – giving them significance. For the receiver, significance is given to the signals so that they can make sense. One does so making use of the model that seems most appropriate at the moment. One thing to be noted is that, the receiver’s model may be similar to the sender’s mental model or very different. Example of a mental model: A story of one Canadian’s experience in Tokyo illustrates how an incorrect mental model leads to erroneous interpretation. Unable to find a certain place, the Canadian went to a Japanese police officer and asked, in excellent Japanese how to find the place. The police officer replied in Japanese, “I do not speak English.” Then my friend responded, “If you listen carefully you will hear that I am speaking Japanese.” Without repeating the request for the direction, the Canadian waited. Suddenly a smile came to the Japanese police officer’s face. “Oh! Yes! I can tell you how to get there” and he gave him full direction to the place.
The police officer saw a white man – his face, size, and style of clothes – and thus recalled experiences with visitors who could not speak Japanese. His mental model left him unprepared to hear anything but English and prompted his almost automatic reply that he could not speak English. With more information, a different model was called up; the police officer heard the request and was able to answer without the words being repeated.
A conscious thought arises from one’s mental model, leading to an outward response, conveyed by a signal of some type. Using this outward response we are able to determine how close the meaning is to what we originally intended to develop in our audience. Human communication does not work like a copy and paste machine. Every body must understand on its own. Therefore, for good communication we should make sure the meaning of the audience is a close approximate to the original meaning. Meaning exists in peoples minds, when a signal is recorded; it seems a different thing because I interpret the record according to my experience, needs, and environment. The meaning developed internally will be as different from the original intended meaning as my experience, needs, and environment are different from the communicator. For a communicator to develop meaning that is approximately similar to its audience they should carefully learn: The original context, the receiver’s context, the concentration on transferring sufficient information (full information).t

INFORMATION
The term information is used in communication to have a meaning roughly equivalent to facts. Information is measured in BITs: Binary Information uniTs. A BIT is the basic unit for measuring the quantity of information. BITs are used to transfer information. It is the BITs of information transferred to the receiver’s mind that enables him to develop meaning.

People living in different cultures however, have fewer shared experience than do those living in the same culture. Therefore, the development of similar meaning becomes more difficult for the people in different cultures. Difficulty in inter-cultural communication is further increased by differing interpretations because of different mental models. The challenge of inter-cultural communication is to overcome these two major barriers to understanding – different experiences and different interpretations. For example, George Bernard Shaw once described England and America as “two countries separated by the same language.” When an American visits England, he believes he shares the same language, values, and culture of the British. After only a few hours, however, he realizes to his disappointment that the words he uses convey a completely different set of meaning to the British from the one he intended. For example, he goes into a coffee house and orders biscuits. After some minutes of waiting, he is surprised when the waitron brings him cookies. His use of some words common to everyday American speech shocks his hosts, who consider those words crude. The meaning assigned to gestures as well as words is different in York from what it is in New York.

For communication to be effective, we should concentrate on three key points, which include:
1. Understanding the models held in the peoples mind, different groups as well as different individuals would have different mental models. The general (shared) model of people must be learned first and then through dialogue, the specific models of the individual with whom we are communicating.
2. Understand how information is transferred in a specific culture and situations where we seek to minister.
3. Transfer sufficient information – give the full illustration so that the receiver can reconstruct a meaning closely approximating that which we intended.

BIBLICAL VIEW OF MEANING IS INTERNAL AND INDIVIDUAL
Read 1Corinthians 2:9-14: The difficulties addressed in these verses are those that develop when we try to pass on what we understand. We must always be alert to the danger of substituting our still-growing perception for the absolute meaning in the scripture. We are obliged to test constantly that which we seek to communicate of God’s truth using his own revelation of that truth in scripture. In another place, God’s word says, “to the pure, everything is pure.” Explaining that the attitudes and worldviews we use to counter the world determine how everything will be to us. If our attitudes are “pure” then we will view life in a “pure” light. Additionally, the verse goes on to elaborate how one’s perception of things affects his understanding of those things, and, ultimately, his way of living. This shows us that every individual is unique in his approach to everything, and, depending on his attitudes, his worldview, the cultural meanings assigned to certain symbols, his needs and the other above-mentioned factors, meaning will differ from individual to individual.
Furthermore, in our studying of God’s truth, we must not only study content – for we might assign meanings erroneously – but also context – striving to understand how these words must have sounded to their original receivers. It is proper that we seek a meaning closely approximate to that of the communicator and not rush into concluding meanings for passages we might not even fully understand. Moreover, we must be aware of the meaning and possible meanings attached by the listeners to the information we share.
God is absolute meaning. When asked to reveal his essence, he described himself as “I AM who I AM” appealing to nothing or anything else to explain himself. Jesus said, “I am the truth” because he is God – the totality of truth lies on him. He is the substance and essence of truth itself. He is the meaning of truth.

CONCLUSION
Although communication is the development of shared meaning, meaning is internal and individual. In human communication, we cannot just copy-paste the intended meaning from the communicator to the receiver: from teacher to students, from employer to employees or from preacher to the congregation. The meaning received is not a Xerox of the meaning given. Every one develops his own meaning from the information given by the speaker depending on one’s needs, environment, culture, and experiences. A simple experiment could be done if one is to prove that communication is internal and individual: ask a group of about fifteen to twenty five people to sit in a circle. The experiment starts by one whispering into the ear of the one next to him/her a random word(s) without repeating. Generally, you find that the last person in the circle will have a word (or phrase) completely different to the original word whispered by the first participant. As the word went circulating around the group, every receiver interpreted it to mean something in his/her own way. This shows us the obligation we have, if we are to be excellent communicators, to provide information with clarity and precision, as much as we can. As communicators, we should leave no room for ambiguity and at all times give information with as much exactitude and clearness as we can for the receivers to develop a meaning that is a close approximate to the one we originally intended.

The Main Aspects of Style in Things Fall Apart

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Title: The Main Aspects of Style in Chinua Achebe's Things Fall Apart
Author: HG Furaha///BlogSpot University online-editor-in-chief
Timescape: 2008
Type: Term Paper
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“The beauty of the universe lies in its diversity.” So writes Antonio Ugenti, highlighting a timeless truth with which we, as a group, fully concur. To appreciate Achebe’s style in Things Fall Apart we should first appreciate this truth. The most beautiful thing about life is that it comes in all shapes and sizes. There is so much beauty in diversity! There are no two people who share the same life; and there are no two things that are exactly alike. One cannot even imagine the dullness of a world in which everything is like everything else. Achebe’s style is, therefore, unique. But it does not only stop there. His distinctiveness is drawn from him being original, thought-provoking and real in his writing. In an interview by Jerome Brooks for The Paris Review, Mr. Achebe (1994) said:
I believe in the complexity of the human story, and that there is no way you can tell [a] story in one way and say, ‘this is it.’ Always there will be someone who can tell it differently depending on where they are standing … this is the way I think the world’s stories should be told: from many different perspectives. (pg.1)
He tells the story of Africa from an African perspective, with “Achebean” style. Achebe is the ideal teller of this story. Born in Nigeria during the early periods of colonialism, he spoke Igbo at home, and was taught in English at school. In an autobiographical essay he describes himself as growing up “at the crossroads of culture.” He depicts the Umuofian society as it moves from a thriving African civilization, flourishing in its culture, into a society that falls into the clutches of Westernization as the colonialists come in and conquer it. Umuofia, as the book title suggests, “falls apart.” His style is decorated with proverbs, idioms, Ibo folklore, substories, similes, forebodings, and flashbacks. This great diversity adds up to the value, and the beauty, of his book.
The book Things Fall Apart is the truest form of an African classic. It is a book about Africa, by an African, from an African perspective. It is the work of one of Africa’s greatest minds and industrious individuals, and thus, is the work of Africa itself. It tells Africa’s story in a most sincere and original way by looking at one culture of Africa – one piece of Africa the pot of gold – Umuofia.

The paper that follows is an elaborate description, after identification, of the main aspects of style as utilized by Achebe in his masterpiece Things Fall Apart and an endeavor to ornately explain their importance:

One aspect of style extensively put at task in Things Fall Apart is proverbs. Proverbs are an integral part of Umuofian (and African) culture, and are used comprehensively even in ordinary day-to-day conversation. From the beginning of the book, Achebe implies his comprehensive use of proverbs when he writes “proverbs are the palm oil with which words are eaten. (pg.1)” This profound statement shows the direct importance of proverbs in Umuofian oral culture, and provides us with prescience on the invaluable place of proverbs in the book. While citing some examples from the book we will henceforth elaborate the importance of proverbs in this book. One importance of proverbs in the book is that they were used as a philosophical pedestal to explain the various Ibo beliefs. For example, “When a man says yes his chi also says yes. (pg. 19)” – this explains the Ibo belief in a personal god and the philosophy that a man succeeded only because of his own diligence and not out of luck; that a man determined his fate by his choices and actions. They also provide further insight into the culture and day-to-day activities of the Ibo in a way that ordinary language cannot truly explain: “A child’s fingers are not scalded by a piece of hot yam which its mother puts into its palm. (pg. 67)” At first sight, this brings to us one major food in Umuofian cuisine – yams. Conversely, judging from its context one sees that it is stated in Okonkwo’s defense after his participation in Ikemefuna’s death. It explains that he cannot be blamed for taking part in what was forced on him as an obligation. The proverbs also offer us insight into the characters’ thoughts and attitudes towards life. Like when Okonkwo says, “Living fire begets cold impotent ash (pg. 151)” as he analyses Nwoye’s conversion to Christianity. This shows us that he had a negative attitude towards his son and toward Christianity; he also goes on and refers to him as “degenerate and effeminate” – augmenting our opinion. They were also used as tools of enculturation and education. Like when the elder says to Okonkwo “Those whose palm-kernels were cracked for them by a benevolent spirit should not forget to be humble. (pg. 26)” Reminding him of the universal (and Ibo) value of humility even when one succeeds. The richness in, and elusiveness of, meaning that these proverbs have shows us their advanced intellect and their understanding of life. For example … These, together with many others, were the uses and importance of proverbs in the book Things Fall Apart.
Symbolism: Achebe also employs an extensive use of symbolic figures throughout the book. http://www.sparknotes.com/ defines symbols as “objects, characters, figures or colors used to represent abstract ideas or concepts.”(pg.1) Achebe’s style is festooned with various literary, cultural and allegorical symbols. The title itself: Things Fall Apart is symbolic to the breakdown of African traditions with the coming of the white colonialists. In another instance where he describes Amalinze, he writes, “He was called the Cat because his back would never touch the ground.”(pg.1); the symbol “the Cat” was used to depict Amalinze’s state as the grand wrestler whose back never touched the ground. Here Achebe explicitly explains the symbol that he has used. In most other instances, the symbols are concealed – therefore the reader is to comprehend the implied meaning. As when he writes, “Let the Kite perch and let the Eagle perch too.”(pg.14) – this is a prayer that Okonkwo makes to his chi as he was at Nwakibie’s house. Here, the Kite symbolizes him, and the Eagle is symbolic of Nwakibie. Furthermore, portraying the swarming of the locusts he writes “And at last the locusts did descend. They settled on every tree, every blade of grass…and the whole country…” Here, he speaks in highly allegorical terms, using the locusts to prefigure the arrival of the white colonial settlers, and the various damages they caused to the delicate internal balances of the Umuofian ethos.
Similes: these are descriptions that simplify abstract ideas by drawing comparisons with simpler tangible artifacts. Achebe’s use of similes depicts his literary prowess, and his aptitude in abridging and simplifying abstract truths in beautiful figurative ways. Introducing Okonkwo’s fame and eminence he employs this simile: “His fame had grown like a bush-fire in the harmattan.”(pg.3) – the harmattan is a wind typical to the Ibo climate that Achebe was writing from. To explain Amalinze’s agility in wrestling he writes, “[he was] as slippery as a fish in water.”(pg.3). – as seen in the above cases, most of the similes are used to explain actions and behaviors of people. However, the similes are not limited to explaining behavior and actions. Sometimes he uses them to explain natural phenomena. For example, he writes in one instance, “The Earth burned like hot coals.”(pg.17) explaining in figurative terms the scorching heat of the sun that had caused the season to be very dry, and the harvest unfruitful.
Flashbacks: Achebe’s style is also extensively bejeweled with flashbacks. (Stories told from a nostalgic/reflective perspective). We find the first instance of a flashback in the opening chapter of the book, when Achebe tells the story of Okoye’s visit to Unoka demanding payment for the money he had lent Unoka. (pg.4) Additionally, almost the whole of chapter 3 is written in flashback. It begins with a narration of Okonkwo paying a visit to the wealthy Nwakibie to ask him for yams that he may grow on his farm. Unoka’s laziness (Unoka is Okonkwo’s father) had left Okonkwo without any inheritance – no yams, and even no substantial piece of land for him to plant them on – that is why he had to request yams from Nwakibie. This story is told in reminisce at a time when Okonkwo is already a wealthy Umuofian leader with three wives. (ch.3). It also narrates Unoka’s visit to Agbala. (pg. 12-13). Achebe used flashbacks especially to establish an understanding of the story’s movement. Without the flashbacks, important details of the story could have been left out to the reader’s misunderstanding, or even have caused failure to understand some parts of the story. He skillfully uses them to glue the story together while explaining details imperative to comprehension of the story.
Language and Choice of Words: Achebe deftly chooses his words to fit the tone of the particular part of the story, the theme he is expounding on at the time, the ideas he is aggregately explaining at that moment in the story, in a manner that ultimately adds up to the message he is conveying. One stylistic use of language that is characteristic of him throughout the book is the use of his native Ibo language betwixt English. To accentuate the difference, he italicizes the Ibo word e.g.: “They called him the little bird nza who so far forgot himself after a heavy meal that he challenged his chi.”(pg. 22) While simultaneously enhancing his style, his demonstrating of imaginative, often formal Ibo language showed the complexity of the language for direct translation into English. The aspect of language, and his distinctive choice of words, is an aspect of his style that shouldn’t be ignored because it is actually the most alive part of his style – visible on every page, every chapter, - throughout the book.
Forebodings: Achebe also uses forewarnings in his writing – in a subtle manner giving the reader glimpses of that bound to happen through events that seem to ingeniously lead the active reader into discerning that which is about to ensue. In Chapter 14, for example, we see Okonkwo being exiled to Mbanta – at first sight it seems that it is a personal disaster – yet it signified the beginning of the tribe’s “falling apart”; the exile removed Okonkwo, a strong endorser and practitioner of Umuofian culture, at a crucial time from his tribe. He returns to a changed world, its internal cultural equilibrium very disturbed, that he can no longer adapt to, or substantially change. This event of exiling Okonkwo foreshadowed the falling apart of the whole tribe. Another instance of foreshadowing is the case of Ikemefuna – it is important to note how Achebe foreshadows the lad’s death even as he introduces him. From the first mention of Ikemefuna, the boy given “as compensation” (pg.8) for the killing of a woman at Mbaino, he incites in the reader a certain sense of gloom and bleakness haunting the boy – which climaxes as Okonkwo lifts up the axe and kills him (ch.2). The recurrence of the phrase “falling apart” in the last chapter also foreshadowed the story’s tragic ending – the tribe’s culture, customs, traditions, values, and even worldview had been greatly altered and destroyed – great leaders are detained – Okonkwo commits suicide – and tragic things are rampant as prefigured by the recurring phrase “falling apart.”
Other aspects of style that festoon Achebe’s Things Fall Apart are imagery – he extensively uses Animal imagery like the toad (pg.15), a kite and eagle (pg. 14), nza, the tortoise, the sacred python, and locusts – all of these animals were used as allegorical descriptions of certain abstract ideas he was conveying. Folklore: he extensively uses folk tales (like the story of the tortoise and its shell), Ibo idiomatic lexis, proverbs, and artistic expressions. Motifs: these are recurring structures, contrasts, or literary devices that help highlight, develop and inform one of the text’s major themes. The inveterate mentioning of Chi – which is the Ibo concept of a personal god helped accentuate and develop the theme of religion and how original Umuofian beliefs were shattered by the advent of Christianity. Substories (story within a story): the whole text of Things Fall Apart is made up of various fragments and subparts that aggregately bring out a story – he glues the whole story by weaving different little stories together. All in all, from the perspective of style, Achebe has proficiently succeeded in creating a true African masterpiece and a universal epitome of the African novel.

The world is like a painting. Every color, every hue, every shade, every level of saturation – every huge or tiny difference – adds to its beauty. Imagine a painting with only one color – dull, unattractive, and unenjoyable. In the same way, Achebe’s style adds to the beauty of the world of literature. His distinctive and original perspective on life, his story-telling techniques, his choice of language, his vast range of literary devices, and, holistically, his engaging of the audience (i.e. his readers) – the truly African way introduced a new outlook and perception of life into the literary world. Moreover, his idiosyncratic style enhances the reading of the book, augments the process of comprehension, and, generally, causes the reader to look at life in new eyes. He allows the reader to experiment on new outlooks, subtly asks thought-provoking questions throughout the moving story, and explores the simple yet profound realities of life – like good, evil, satisfaction, culture, struggle, tragedy, non-conformity, manhood, success humankind’s universal desire (and quest) for God, and many other truths – in a manner that, indirectly, asks more questions than it gives answers. It engages the reader into a quest for knowledge, and truth. One thing one sees in his approach is that it utilizes a truly African approach. Throughout the story Achebe maintains his authenticity as African. In another interview, Mr. Achebe comments on the importance of African stories being told from an African perspective by the following proverb: “until the lions have their own historians, the history of the hunt will always glorify the hunter.” He unmasks the realities of Umuofian culture (which is almost prototypical of African culture) by revealing the routine day-to-day life of the tribesmen in a large variety of its aspects: for example, he speaks of Umuofia’s cuisine when he mentions how they ate locusts, actually as a delicacy, “And then appeared on the horizon a slowly-moving mass like a boundless sheet of black cloud drifting towards Umuofia. Soon it covered half the sky, and the solid mass was now broken by tiny eyes of light like shining star dust. It was a tremendous sight, full of power and beauty.”(pg. 56) The villagers then went, during the night, and “harvested” these rarely appearing insects, dried them in the sun and then ate them “with solid palm-oil.” (pg. 56)
This is also true of when he shows the value the Umuofians give their mother by writing: “Can you tell me, Okonkwo, why it is that one of the commonest names we give to our children is Nneka, or ‘Mother is Supreme’? We all know that a man is the head of the family and his wives do his bidding. A child belongs to its father and his family and not to its mother and her family. A man belongs to his fatherland and not to his motherland. And yet we say Nneka – ‘Mother is Supreme.’ Why is that?”(pg. 94)
His impact on the literary world, and even the day-to-day life of “ordinary” people, can be seen in the various comments by literary critics. In one essay, the critic writes:
Achebe did a good job of making the readers feel a part of the Ibo culture before the whites arrived…After widening our perspective, we, like the Africans themselves, view Europeans as strange and possibly threatening invaders. We experience colonialism, therefore, from the perspective of a colonized people.
The truth that it is not only in one way that Achebe’s originality and style have contributed to shaping perspectives of individuals all around the world is notice d again in the following critic’s remark. Observing Achebe’s contribution to the world at large, he marks:
[I have] learned that the African Tribes were not as mindless and barbaric as I…thought. Achebe…showed the changes that people are capable of when they are exposed to new ways…that finding out what’s best for you through experience is more important…He shows us that life is about driving across country as opposed to flying and interacting with other places, and then being able to talk about it. It’s sharing ideas or simply taking time to talk to the person you never talked to because they seemed different or did something that you never understood. Ask them why they do it. Take the difficult road. Risk the security of the set everyday routine that we all have, and get out there in someone else’s shoes. Then like, Nwoye, things will turn out for the best.
Yet another profound statement on the impact of Achebe’s style is visible in the observation, “As readers seeing [original African traditional day-to-day] life, we accept [it] and understand the beauty that we would have never known otherwise.” He is one of the few African writers who have truly exposed Africa to the world, and allowed people from outside Africa to have a truly African experience through reading. Intellectuals and writers like Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o, Shaaban Robert, Julius Nyerere, Wole Soyinka, Joseph Ki-Zerbo, Thandika Mkandawire, among other Africans have also made substantial contributions in portraying Africa the African way yet the contribution made by Things Fall Apart is of a special kind. The Sunday Times cites him as one of the “1,000 Makers of the Twentieth Century” for “defining ‘a modern African literature that was truly African’ and thereby making a major contribution to world literature”