The Music Of The Zanzibari

BSU Profile
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Title: The Music of The Zanzibari: a Cultural Excursion
Author: HG Furaha///BlogSpot University online-editor-in-chief
Timescape: 2008
Type: Term Paper
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feel free to use the information by HG Furaha in the way that best suits your scholastic needs. Citing any part of this page is free. Basically, put the words you are citing in quotes ("...") then, in brackets, indicate that you are quoting H.G. Furaha (n.d.)
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The Paper Itself:
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Zanzibar, being one of earth’s most multi-ethnic destinations, is endowed with a rich culture in terms of music, religious practice, and lifestyle, which has developed and evolved with time to provide Africa, and the world at large, with a unique and varied selection of musical and cultural diversity. The East African coast is an ethnic melting pot. Zanzibar in particular boasts of a wide variety of ethnic groups and cultures that have existed side-to-side for centuries – the native Africans, the Shiraz, the Arabs, the Indians, and other Asians – all of these enhance the Zanzibari experience into a beautifully original fusion of lifestyles and culture. Its music also is both diverse and original. Zanzibari music is a fine example of truly African music that is simultaneously truly multi-ethnic. Therefore, the music of the Zanzibari deserves special attention and evaluation if we are to understand music not only from an African viewpoint but also from a comprehensive point of view.
Music is one of the greatest beautifiers of our universe. It makes our world a more colorful and lively place by carrying the emotions we express in a melodious package of creativity. The Online Britannica Concise Encyclopedia (2008) defines music as an “art concerned with combining vocal or instrumental sounds for beauty of form or emotional expression, usually according to cultural standards of rhythm, melody, and …harmony. (pg.1)” Simply stated – music is the expression of emotion, ideas, thoughts etc through the medium of sound. It can also be viewed as a release, or a means through which an experience is shared. It is an infinite cultural resource ingrained in culture since ancient times. Imagine a world without music and you will have imagined a dull world!
The long-lasting presence of Zanzibari music makes it one of the most authentic examples of African music. Dr. Karenga (2002) says, “…the continuing quest to free ourselves, live full and meaningful lives and become the best of what it means to be both African and human in the fullest sense of the words… involves an ongoing search for models of excellence and possibilities within our culture by which we speak our own special cultural truth to the world and make our own unique contribution to the forward flow of human history.” If we are to make an inimitable and true contribution to humanity, we should look within ourselves for that which we do with excellence so that we may embrace and enhance it. Now, if original African music is to make a mark on the global arena we should seek first to understand our music. Moreover, to identify and appreciate “models of excellence” like Zanzibar’s taarab, the Congolese Lingala music, and the many other forms of strikingly original African music, which we can improve and therefore move towards our rightful place as Africans in the world. Upholding African culture will begin by appreciating it. In addition, music, being culture’s inexhaustible resource, is to be given particular consideration and appreciation. Dr. Karenga (2002) also mentions that we are “to speak our own special cultural truth to the world,” and what better way is there for us to articulate our truth than expressing it through music.
Henceforth, this paper will elaborately examine the music of the Zanzibari by highlighting its history, forms, roles, place in culture, and practice; then going on to generate ideas on the promulgation of African culture after assessing music in contemporary Africa. We will also evaluate Zanzibari music by offering a biblical perspective on it. This paper’s ultimate aim is to synthesize new and original ideas on how Africa, especially through music, can preserve its culture, its ethos, and identity amidst contemporary changes and challenges:

A brief history of Zanzibari music: the coast of East Africa has been for long a center of trade between Africa and the East. It has facilitated intercontinental trade almost since primeval times – historical records mention trade between Africa and the Orient as far back as 200 BC. As www.zanzibar.net (2007) – a web-based tourist guide – puts it “coastal East Africa is a cultural melting pot.” This interaction of cultures is greatly evidenced in Zanzibar’s music – particularly Taarab. Taarab reflects the many cultures that have passed through this region throughout the ages. Listening to taarab, you hear in it a tinge of Oriental tunes, Near-Eastern dances, Egyptian melodies, Swahili compositions, Coastal rhythms, and many other elements of music that are incorporated from a diverse range of cultures. The influences of these cultures are vividly seen in the kinds of instruments used by the taarab ensembles. Going to a taarab orchestra, you find the tabla – an instrument of Indian origin; the oud and dumbek – both of Middle-Eastern origin; the taishokoto – a banjo-like instrument of Japanese origin; Zanzibari zumari and ngoma; and even western-style keyboards and guitars among others. Zanzibar.net (2007) goes on to say, “…most importantly, taarab lyrics radiate with the allusive intricacies of Swahili poetry and showcase the beauty of this long, literary tradition.” Thereafter, it briefly explains the history of Taarab in the following words:
The word taarab is of Arabic derivation and contains multi-layered meaning. Gilbert Rouget in Music and Trance explains [that] taarab comes from "the verb tariba which means "'to be moved, agitated'...also signifies 'to excite, to want to move,' and hence 'to sing, to make music." Historically, the Sultan Seyyid Barghash who brought a group of Egyptian musicians to his court first introduced taarab to Zanzibar in 1870. Barghash sent a Zanzibari musician, Ibrahim Muhammed, to study in Cairo and upon his return; he formed the Zanzibar Taarab Orchestra. In 1905, Zanzibar's second music society, Ikwhani Safaa Musical Club, was established and continues to thrive today with around 35 active members. Ikwhani Safaa and Culture Musical Club (founded in 1958) remain the leading Zanzibar taarab orchestras. (pg.1)
This is the conventionally, and traditionally, accepted history of Taarab music although there are many other perspectives on the same. The many cultures involved in the genesis and the continuance of taarab have all contributed into its becoming an original entity of Zanzibari heritage. It has continually evolved in form, style, composition, rhythm and other elements to become a model of excellence of African music that continues to thrive in our contemporary times!
Forms of Zanzibari Music: Although Zanzibar is renowned for taarab, it boasts also of a great assortment of other kinds of music that are also evidently Zanzibari. Ngoma (which literally means “drums”) is the umbrella unit that comprises many other forms of music. Ngoma is such an integral part of Zanzibari culture in that it is even considered, by the locals, a necessity in life and not a mere luxury. Walking down the streets of the Spice Isle, as its visitors affectionately call it, it is typical for one to find a group of boys passionately hitting the traditional bongo drums carried between their arms with girls behind them chanting the words, and dancing to the beat of a popular mdundiko song. Mdundiko is the music of the streets. It is an ensemble in motion – a street parade of beautiful Zanzibari voices and melodious drumming. It is the music of the ordinary man, who does not have time or money to go and watch a professional taarab band in action at, say, the Old Fort or Forodhani Gardens. Zanzibari men, women and children alike are enthused by it – and they spontaneously take part in the Ngoma whenever the music begins. Other forms of Ngoma are Beni – which is a popular wedding entertainment that borrows its name from the English word “band;” Kiilua, Kidumbak and Unyago are other popular types of Ngoma. Unyago is a unique kind of Ngoma with a special cultural implication. It is used during initiation into womanhood; it is particularly used to emphasize the new roles the girl assumes as she has now attained maturity – her position in society, her general conduct, her purity, and even tips on intimacy, reaching orgasm, and other things pertaining to marriage and sexuality. (A more detailed account on Unyago will be given in later paragraphs, particularly due to its priceless role in enculturation and in shaping societal conduct). There are literally hundreds of types of Ngoma in Tanzania, and many originating from Zanzibar; these mentioned are just a few examples that merely hint on the nation’s musical richness.
“Living” the music: Commenting on the indivisibility of music from African everyday life, Titon (1976) wrote, “Traditional songs and musical instruments are not commodities separable from the flux of life.” Culturally, Africans do not only perform their music, they regard it as part of their life. Now, the only thing that does not change is change itself and Africa, being dynamic, has undergone immense changes – music is not as “inseparable” from life as it was traditionally. Although things are different in contemporary Africa, music in Zanzibar still is not “separable from the flux of life.” The people of Zanzibar still live their music on a day-to-day basis. From the streets, to the homesteads, to the schools – Zanzibari people are still very in harmony with their music. Their musical heritage – Taarab, Kidumbak, Beni, and the other types of Ngoma – is still alive and kicking in their hearts, and in practice. Music is like the glue that holds Zanzibari culture together. It is used in education, in enculturation, as recreation, in initiation and almost any setting imaginable – to them, music is life. If there is any contemporary African culture that can still be described in Titon’s words it is Zanzibar. One scholar comments, “Unlike the West, where most music is pretty much considered ‘art for art’s sake’; the tribal music of the African people serves a social function … [since childhood it is a process of education] that teaches the people how to respond to it so naturally.” 1 The above description of a typical mdundiko experience on the streets of Zanzibar only augments this proposition. Finally, a look at another scholar’s remark on music in Africa sheds more light on this truth (from 123helpme.com, 2008):
Because music is so integral to [African] society, everyone is expected to be able to sing and dance at a certain level of proficiency. Beyond that, certain people are selected for special musical training. These exceptional performers tend to reply on the help of spirits for guidance, which demand high performance from the individual. Musical instruments… are not just objects; they are semi-human as they take on human characteristics. These instruments, usually played by master musicians, can have personal names, be kept in special houses and may be “fed” sacrificial food. Because music is an integral part of life, it is found everywhere, even the market. (pg.1)

The section that follows focuses on the roles of music referring to Zanzibar for examples and illustrations on the various functions music has in human life. It explores what, and how, the music of the Zanzibari serves them as a people and as individuals:

Music, in itself, is not valuable. What we make of it is what gives value to it. It is of great importance to understand that music, as a part of culture, serves so much more than mere provision of auditory pleasure. Raymond Firth, an anthropologist, explains this about songs, “They have work to do, to serve as funeral dirges, as accompaniments to dancing, or to serenade a lover.” (p. 171) Along with the few characteristics mentioned by Firth above, music has a comprehensive range of ways that it serves humanity:
Music in enculturation, in customs and in cultural practices: Enculturation is, generally, the adoption of the behavior patterns of a culture. Human beings are born without culture, but gradually accept and conform to the norms, customs, behavior patterns, traditions and practices of a certain culture. In most cultures, it is the parents’ task to enculture their children. In Zanzibar, as in most other African cultures, enculturation – particularly of children – is a societal responsibility. Now this is done through a number of ways – music being one fundamental means that this is achieved. Music is comprehensively used in making people adapt and conform to Zanzibari culture. In the paragraph dealing with the forms of Zanzibari music, we revealed that Unyago is a special form of Ngoma as it is used in female initiation rituals. When a girl attains maturity, it is said, “amevunja ungo.” Subtly, the girl’s parents start teaching her on life as an adult – through words and actions. As she approaches marriage age, she has to be taken, together with her age mates, for trainings and teachings on the life of adulthood, on sexuality and the value of purity, and on general life skills. These training rituals are mainly performed as ceremonies in which music, of course, is not absent. The girls are said to have “kwenda Unyagoni.” The music played in these ceremonies is known as Unyago. Zanzibar.net (2007) explains the process, and the role, of Unyago:
“[Unyago] is performed at a highly secluded private female initiation ritual for young women about to be married. This ceremony can last anywhere from one day to three months and it involves all aspects of education on 'how to be a woman': detailed sexual education as well as other aspects such as clothing, hygiene, make-up, cooking, how to treat your husband's parents, your neighbors etc… The most famous of the female initiators is Bi Kidude who usually performs the Unyago ceremony together with two other drummers and several dancers. The drums played in Unyago are vumi (bass drum), msondo and kinganga (taller upright drums with a higher pitch) and songs that are related to the subject accompany the drumming. Even though these rituals are performed much less frequently than in former times, they still continue to be held throughout Unguja and Pemba [Zanzibar] (as well as the mainland where similar ceremonies exist under different names). (pg.2)
In this way, music is used to make them adopt, and conform to, the image they are culturally expected to don as adults. Furthermore, Zanzibar being dominantly Muslim in religion, children are obliged to attend madrasa – these are classes held at the mosque where a sheikh leads the children in the study, memorization, and understanding of the Q'oran. However, Madrasa is more than merely an equivalent to the typical Sunday School; the children are not only taught from the Q'oran but also from traditional legends and stories. They are also taught valuable life skills and in them moral and cultural values are engrained into the children. Now, one of the most used teaching aids in madrasa sessions is music. The children are taught how to sing, how to dance, how to use musical instruments such as the zumari and the zeze in madrasa sessions. It is common to hear people saying, “jamaa ana sauti nzuri sana! Lazima kaenda madrasa” which implies that a person even learns how to use his voice, and how to sing excellently – with or without instruments – in madrasa. Music is an effective tool in administering lessons on cultural values. It is an invaluable instrument of enculturation. The effectiveness of using music as a tool of enculturation is easily seen in the Zanzibari people themselves – who are, generally, very warm and hospitable, devout Muslims and well cultured people. Other cultural functions that music plays is when it is used in funerals as dirges, in war songs and dances, in the market places, at birth, puberty, circumcision and other rites of passage.
Spiritual Roles of Music: apart from being an effective enculturation tool, music plays a humongous role in the spirituality of the Zanzibari people. Regardless of one’s religion, the Zanzibari use music to connect with the spiritual realm, and also as part of their religious practices. The Muslim majority, for instance, use music very extensively. Cries of “Allahu Akbar” can be heard at least five times a day throughout the city from the hundreds of mosques that cover the area. Music is also a big part of their worship when they congregate. A troop of tiny brown boys, in shirts and khaki shorts, and sunburned girls with white shawls on their heads, sprints through the stone town singing at the top of their voices as they run – every 5:00 pm – towards madrasa. They gather at the mosque courts and are met with more music: this time melodious tunes emanating from a master zeze player – singing of Zanzibar’s glorious past, and singing of Islam. This is a typical everyday scene in Zanzibar. Now, although every church has its own way of employing music in their praise and worship, Christians – in a typical worship service – vibrantly dance and sing to the tunes of a song of praise to Jesus Christ during their meetings. Voices of joyful ululation can be heard even from miles away as the worship service continues. It is rare not to hear the phrase “makofi na vigelegele” (which translates “clap your hands and shout with ululations”) mentioned at a church meeting. The Bible also speaks of God “dwelling in the praises of His people” and the early followers of Christ being told to “greet one another with psalms, hymns, and songs of joy that give thanks to God.” Together with a host of other verses that praise the act of praising God, these act as incentives for music being used in church and in individual worship. Mediums, Spiritists, Animists, Buddhists, Hindus, and the many other religions utilize music in their rituals. It is important to keep in mind the truth that music greatly influences one’s thoughts, worldviews, morals, values, and even his soul and spirit. Music carries emotions with it. One of the definitions we gave of music is that it is “the transfer of emotions through the medium of sound.” Music serves one’s emotions while conveying another’s. Take a traditional Zanzibari funeral service for example; the dull and austere lyrics and tunes employed enhance the mood of the ceremony. A drum carved from a hollow log is almost lifelessly beaten to form slow repeating notes; male mourners carry the dead body in silence while women follow closely behind them cutting the air in bleak harmony – crying relentlessly! All this evokes dreary feelings of pain, sadness and emptiness within one’s soul. The spirits of the listeners are grieved. Music plays a spiritual role.
Music and the preservation of history: the Zanzibari are a people who are very in touch with their heritage and history, and this mainly due to the immense role music plays in the safeguarding of history. It is commonplace to see a group of youngsters seated beneath the sun, or the stars, and an old man boasting of Zanzibar’s enzi –a zeze sitting comfortably on his lap for use every so often when, all of a sudden, the whole group jumps up and bursts out to song and dance. Many songs have been composed as “Siku ya Uhuru!” and “Muungano!” elaborately telling of Tanzania’s near past; still, others tell of the Zanzibar revolution, the period of slavery, and the many glories of the spice island. Thus is how music put to task in the preservation of history.
Other roles of music: Apart from the above-mentioned roles, there are other roles music plays – especially in individual life, as will be discussed. Music is used in social, cultural, and even political liberation. One would testify to this if he were alive during the Zanzibar revolution. Throngs of young Zanzibari activists could be seen in the streets, around the palace of the Sultan and the governor’s estate singing and chanting – throes of freedom were thrown into the air for everyone to hear. A nonviolent movement against imperial and/or sultan rule was passionately carried out in song and mantra to reveal the evils of colonialism and the rightful place of the African as a leader of his own, and (although more violent methods came into play later) the war was won by the music. In social liberation, taarab is used effectively to call attention to various societal problems and weaknesses – it is used as a tool of enlightenment and an instrument of reform. Although taarab is used increasingly for entertainment a few like Bi Kidude carry on this legacy of using music for intellectual and social emancipation. Music is used to educate, enhance and facilitate relationships. Be it a peer-peer, sultan-subject, parent-child, man-woman or lover-beloved relationship music is as an effective communication tool in all these. It is said that without music, the world would be naked, cold, and quiet; music can wrap you in a blanket of comfort when you are lonely, or inspire you when you are down. Music is a vehicle for expressing love, telling a story, or sharing emotions, and life itself. Another role of music: taarab musicians earn their living from it, as it is their source of income. Even in pre-colonial times, ngoma troupes used to travel to different villages, play their music and were paid for it – these days, bands like East Afrika Melody, Zanzibar Modern Taarab and the likes earn fame and income for their beautiful lyrical and musical prowess.
A Biblical Perspective: Music has always played a great role in the worship of the church and is, even today, very important to a Christian’s spiritual life. Since ancient times music has been considered as one way that man can get into the presence of God; this can be seen in the book of Psalms in the Bible, which records authors as ancient as Moses, and the sons of Asaph. In a recent sermon, Rev. Tom Otieno (2008) expounded on worship, “The English word “worship” originates from an old English word that means to ‘give worth; to honor’;” and although worship is not the music, but the act of our hearts giving God what he deserves, music usually sets it in motion. Combining this truth with the many instances of worship in the Bible, we see that God loves music – the bible records music even in Heaven (in Revelation, John writes, “and I saw hosts of angels, seraphim and cherubim casting down their golden crowns and singing ‘Hosanna! Hosanna!’” and we see that Lucifer was the angel that “led music” in the heavens before his fall. Music carries so much emotional and spiritual power in that the singer, or the one making music, almost literally pours out his heart into it – this is the power and beauty of music. Kierkegaard (1988) wrote, “Music has a way of entering places where even the sun’s rays cannot.” Music has a way of piercing into men’s heart and taking its message along with it in a very powerful way. The people of ancient Palestine were much like the Zanzibari in terms of music. In the evenings, the streets were dotted with school-age children running to a rabbi amidst dancing and singing as much as the boys and girls of Zanzibar run for madrasa every evening in the Stone Town. During the Sabbath, people would walk to the temple resonating with song while ululating and undulating to the tunes of the “Songs of Ascent” just as well as you see the musical procession of a typical Zanzibari Friday as they go to the mosque for sw’allah. Even some of the musical instruments used such as the Oud and Dumbek originate from the ancient Middle East and were used even in biblical Palestine (they are what Bible translators have called “lyres” and “drums.”) The biggest difference in the use of music between the biblical society and Zanzibar is that the Israelites worshipped Yahweh (like many Christians and Jews in Zanzibar do even today) but the Muslim majority sings to Allah. Another difference would be the genre of music, but in form, roles and function, music has the same position in both societies. A research on the place of music in biblical Israel would lead one to somewhat similar findings as the ones of Zanzibar apart from the obvious differences stated above.
Music in contemporary Zanzibar: as we well know, the only thing that does not change is change itself; this truth is reflected very well in Zanzibar’s musical tradition and practice. Music in Zanzibar and Africa as a whole has seen drastic modifications and alterations in recent years. Africa has embarked on a new musical journey. One in which the beauty of local music is fused with other genres, mainly from the West. One in which authentic African music is a hard find and has distanced itself from the mainstream – particularly far away from the youth! It is therefore not hard to see why the youth of Zanzibar have joined this new journey and embraced the global musical neo-culture of Hip Hop, R&B, Rock, Neosoul, and the various forms of Afrofusion. Although you will still find throngs of young men, women and children delightfully dancing to mdundiko on the streets of Zanzibar, and children running to madrasa in jovial song and dance, the rate of devout taarab practitioners is falling, and the ngomas are loosing followers. They are giving way to a lifestyle of individual recreation as opposed to the communal Zanzibari dances, songs, and ensembles. They are falling apart. It is increasingly becoming commonplace to see a young man bobbing his head to his iPod to the latest Chris Brown track (an American R&B artist), or “chilling” in her room to the sounds of K-Lynn’s new song (she is a Bongo Flava songstress) rather than going to East Afrika Melody’s taarab album launch. However, thanks to local and international efforts, the music of the Zanzibari still thrives through initiatives like ZIFF (Zanzibar International Film Festival), The Festivities of The Dhow Countries, Sauti za Busara (which is Swahili for “Sounds of Wisdom”), and other events organized for the purposes of promoting and preserving Zanzibar’s music while also showcasing and developing upcoming talent. Sauti za Busara is a four-year old annual festival (every February), an initiative of Zanzibari locals under the hem of Busara Promotions. From 2004, they have garnered people from all over Africa, the Middle East and a few from the West to converge in a free all-week music festival at the Old Fort near Forodhani Gardens. Mojo Magazine (2006) hailed Sauti za Busara as “the world’s most idyllically situated festival” and the Daily Nation joined in calling it “the friendliest festival on earth” as it “showcases the wealth and diversity of music from East Africa and beyond.” Through ways like this, Zanzibar holds on its delicate musical heritage.
This exploration of the music of the Zanzibari can only lead one to seeing Zanzibar as the “model of excellence” it truly is. As a continent, we should learn from it and keep our musical, societal and cultural heritage alive and intact. And in the inexorable darkness of our world today we can choose to shine our lights by being true to ourselves, by not duplicating everything we see on TV or we come in contact with, but by understanding our very essence and living true to it. Our world has become a playground of darkness. Everyday we see and hear of evils: suicide bombings in Beirut, starvations in Kamba land, outbreaks of war in DRC, the increase of worldwide corruption, and shootings in schools and campuses. We are told of poverty, of AIDS, of dearth, and death. But even in the midst of this darkness, we can become the stars that we truly are by recovering, discovering and allowing ourselves to be all we can be. Dr. Karenga (2002) said, “…the key challenge in Black life is the cultural challenge. And this challenge is essential to break beyond the boundaries of the culture of the established order, recover, discover and bring forth the best of our own culture, and effectively address the fundamental questions of our world and our times.” We can only attend to the “fundamental questions of our time” by regaining our heritage and our identity and living through it. Our music is one thing we can, we must, and we shall reclaim. We should look up to the Zanzibari and other models of excellence and learn from their weaknesses and strengths. Let us emulate these places, where the process of musical creation transforms past and modern practices to contribute to the lively culture; where people are intent on maintaining an identity while responding to the challenges of the present. Now, the next time you see the African sun set, or hear the voice of the Indian Ocean, or walk beneath a starry sky, please hear the beguiling tunes of Zanzibar calling you to discover and recover your Africanness.
God Bless Africa!

Meaning is Internal and Individual

BSU ((BlogSpot University)) Profile
>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>
Title: The Main Aspects of Style in Chinua Achebe's Things Fall Apart
Author: HG Furaha///BlogSpot University online-editor-in-chief
Timescape: 2008
Type: Class Assignment
>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>
feel free to use the information by HG Furaha in the way that best suits your scholastic needs. Citing any part of this page is free. Basically, put the words you are citing in quotes ("...") then, in brackets, indicate that you are quoting H.G. Furaha (n.d.)

INTRODUCTION:
Communication is the process of understanding and sharing meaning between two or more people. It is a process of passing ideas and feeling to other people. It is a way of expressing feelings and thoughts. It also is a way of making one’s ideas, feelings and thoughts known to others.
There are several types of communication:
Intrapersonal communication
Small group communication
Public communication
Mass communication
Dyadic communication

MEANING IS INTERNAL AND INDIVIDUAL:
Meaning is internal and individual: this statement shows that meaning is always personal and unique to every individual. Although similar meaning can be held by different people, but precise meaning is always personal. When a communicator passes a signal, he has, in himself, a meaning that he has intended to convey to his receivers, but each of the receiving individuals will understand him in one’s own unique way.
When an individual communicates, he uses signals. These signals could be words (written or oral), gestures, pictures, touch, or visual objects. These signals are received through the receiver’s five senses: hearing, sight, touch, taste, and smell. From these senses, meaning is developed. When the meaning developed is similar to the meaning intended by the communicator, we have achieved, at most, a measure of communication. (Note: the key word here is “similar” because the shared meaning cannot be the same). However, at many times there seems to be no communication because the audience may not truly understand the intended meaning.
The developed meaning is determined by two factors: First is the different ways in which we use the signals according to our culture (i.e. every culture has a set of symbols to which meaning is assigned. Though different cultures may employ the same symbol, the meaning could be different in the cultures.) Secondly is the interpretation of those signals, the same signal will be interpreted in different ways because we have different needs and environments. In addition, though we might think that we are talking of the same thing, we could actually be referring to different things.

Factors that influence the development of meaning:
a) SIGNALS
These are objects or ideas that are used for passing information to the audience. They are the medium through which communication is achieved. Some of these communication signals include words, body motions (gestures/movements), food, pictures, touch and anything else that conveys information. (They are sometimes referred to as symbols.)

b) REFERENT
This is the idea that is held in a communicator’s mind – it is the intended meaning. The same idea may as well have different meaning in another communicator’s mind. Example of a referent is the word “table.” (To one, table could mean the surface on which we sit to eat, while to another it denotes geographical phenomena e.g. Table Mountains).

c) EXPERIENCES
From the perspective of communication, experience may refer to past interpretations of a certain signal, either bad or good in respect to the receiver’s interpretation. This experience is used for interpreting signals in use, to estimate intended meaning.
d) NEEDS
Needs are those things essential to us as humans e.g. food. They are things we require, and consider indispensable for our existence. They also affect the interpretation of symbols. For example, a hungry person will have a different response to a description of “a feast” from a person who has digestive problems. The man and woman who are getting married in a month will listen more closely to advice on how to have a happy family than he will a non-adolescent boy who is not even interested in girls (yet).

e) ENVIRONMENT
This in communication refers to the surrounding in which communication takes place. It also shapes interpretation of signals e.g. an Eskimo living in Northern Canada and a woman of South India protecting her baby against a draft in her home will have different interpretations of the idea of cold. The context within which the signal is used has a large influence on the meaning that will be given to it. This is of course a basic principle of literary interpretation and understanding the Bible.

A characteristic common in all these factors is that they affect the communicator, or the receiver, internally. Even when outside stimuli exist (as in the case of needs and environment), the impact is felt within the person. And from these one contrives meaning – showing that meaning is internal. In addition, they are not societal or shared entities. They happen to individuals. Their impact is felt internally at a personal level – one develops meaning, influenced by these factors, personally – showing that meaning is individual.
THE MENTAL MODEL
This is like an interpreter, taking signals and translating them – giving them significance. For the receiver, significance is given to the signals so that they can make sense. One does so making use of the model that seems most appropriate at the moment. One thing to be noted is that, the receiver’s model may be similar to the sender’s mental model or very different. Example of a mental model: A story of one Canadian’s experience in Tokyo illustrates how an incorrect mental model leads to erroneous interpretation. Unable to find a certain place, the Canadian went to a Japanese police officer and asked, in excellent Japanese how to find the place. The police officer replied in Japanese, “I do not speak English.” Then my friend responded, “If you listen carefully you will hear that I am speaking Japanese.” Without repeating the request for the direction, the Canadian waited. Suddenly a smile came to the Japanese police officer’s face. “Oh! Yes! I can tell you how to get there” and he gave him full direction to the place.
The police officer saw a white man – his face, size, and style of clothes – and thus recalled experiences with visitors who could not speak Japanese. His mental model left him unprepared to hear anything but English and prompted his almost automatic reply that he could not speak English. With more information, a different model was called up; the police officer heard the request and was able to answer without the words being repeated.
A conscious thought arises from one’s mental model, leading to an outward response, conveyed by a signal of some type. Using this outward response we are able to determine how close the meaning is to what we originally intended to develop in our audience. Human communication does not work like a copy and paste machine. Every body must understand on its own. Therefore, for good communication we should make sure the meaning of the audience is a close approximate to the original meaning. Meaning exists in peoples minds, when a signal is recorded; it seems a different thing because I interpret the record according to my experience, needs, and environment. The meaning developed internally will be as different from the original intended meaning as my experience, needs, and environment are different from the communicator. For a communicator to develop meaning that is approximately similar to its audience they should carefully learn: The original context, the receiver’s context, the concentration on transferring sufficient information (full information).t

INFORMATION
The term information is used in communication to have a meaning roughly equivalent to facts. Information is measured in BITs: Binary Information uniTs. A BIT is the basic unit for measuring the quantity of information. BITs are used to transfer information. It is the BITs of information transferred to the receiver’s mind that enables him to develop meaning.

People living in different cultures however, have fewer shared experience than do those living in the same culture. Therefore, the development of similar meaning becomes more difficult for the people in different cultures. Difficulty in inter-cultural communication is further increased by differing interpretations because of different mental models. The challenge of inter-cultural communication is to overcome these two major barriers to understanding – different experiences and different interpretations. For example, George Bernard Shaw once described England and America as “two countries separated by the same language.” When an American visits England, he believes he shares the same language, values, and culture of the British. After only a few hours, however, he realizes to his disappointment that the words he uses convey a completely different set of meaning to the British from the one he intended. For example, he goes into a coffee house and orders biscuits. After some minutes of waiting, he is surprised when the waitron brings him cookies. His use of some words common to everyday American speech shocks his hosts, who consider those words crude. The meaning assigned to gestures as well as words is different in York from what it is in New York.

For communication to be effective, we should concentrate on three key points, which include:
1. Understanding the models held in the peoples mind, different groups as well as different individuals would have different mental models. The general (shared) model of people must be learned first and then through dialogue, the specific models of the individual with whom we are communicating.
2. Understand how information is transferred in a specific culture and situations where we seek to minister.
3. Transfer sufficient information – give the full illustration so that the receiver can reconstruct a meaning closely approximating that which we intended.

BIBLICAL VIEW OF MEANING IS INTERNAL AND INDIVIDUAL
Read 1Corinthians 2:9-14: The difficulties addressed in these verses are those that develop when we try to pass on what we understand. We must always be alert to the danger of substituting our still-growing perception for the absolute meaning in the scripture. We are obliged to test constantly that which we seek to communicate of God’s truth using his own revelation of that truth in scripture. In another place, God’s word says, “to the pure, everything is pure.” Explaining that the attitudes and worldviews we use to counter the world determine how everything will be to us. If our attitudes are “pure” then we will view life in a “pure” light. Additionally, the verse goes on to elaborate how one’s perception of things affects his understanding of those things, and, ultimately, his way of living. This shows us that every individual is unique in his approach to everything, and, depending on his attitudes, his worldview, the cultural meanings assigned to certain symbols, his needs and the other above-mentioned factors, meaning will differ from individual to individual.
Furthermore, in our studying of God’s truth, we must not only study content – for we might assign meanings erroneously – but also context – striving to understand how these words must have sounded to their original receivers. It is proper that we seek a meaning closely approximate to that of the communicator and not rush into concluding meanings for passages we might not even fully understand. Moreover, we must be aware of the meaning and possible meanings attached by the listeners to the information we share.
God is absolute meaning. When asked to reveal his essence, he described himself as “I AM who I AM” appealing to nothing or anything else to explain himself. Jesus said, “I am the truth” because he is God – the totality of truth lies on him. He is the substance and essence of truth itself. He is the meaning of truth.

CONCLUSION
Although communication is the development of shared meaning, meaning is internal and individual. In human communication, we cannot just copy-paste the intended meaning from the communicator to the receiver: from teacher to students, from employer to employees or from preacher to the congregation. The meaning received is not a Xerox of the meaning given. Every one develops his own meaning from the information given by the speaker depending on one’s needs, environment, culture, and experiences. A simple experiment could be done if one is to prove that communication is internal and individual: ask a group of about fifteen to twenty five people to sit in a circle. The experiment starts by one whispering into the ear of the one next to him/her a random word(s) without repeating. Generally, you find that the last person in the circle will have a word (or phrase) completely different to the original word whispered by the first participant. As the word went circulating around the group, every receiver interpreted it to mean something in his/her own way. This shows us the obligation we have, if we are to be excellent communicators, to provide information with clarity and precision, as much as we can. As communicators, we should leave no room for ambiguity and at all times give information with as much exactitude and clearness as we can for the receivers to develop a meaning that is a close approximate to the one we originally intended.